Mechanisms Used in NASPAA Accredited MPA Programs: An Exploratory Look

Aaron Price

Augusta State University

Abstract

This research paper addresses the problem that no comprehensive research exists on the mechanisms used to operate and maintain an online degree program. To fill this gap in scholarly literature, research was conducted on 24 different universities that have online Masters of Public Administration (MPA) programs and are NASPAA accredited. This paper utilizes a 25 question survey instrument to gather the information that will add to the academic knowledge about online programs. All 25 questions come from the variables on mechanisms, school information, and student information. Findings show a healthy online infrastructure already in place that can be utilized and implemented to make online classes effective. The research also shows that online programs are typically implemented to reach more students. This research’s implications illustrates that although online infrastructure exists, there is no standardized mechanism and therefore each program has to decide on its own how to effectively implement such a program

Introduction

Online learning is a growing area within the United States as more universities are implementing online degree programs (Blackboard, 2000). These programs are developed in various departments including, but not limited to, political science, nursing, sociology, and criminal justice. These programs either offer an entire degree to a student, a certificate, or allow students to take certain classes online. Augusta State University (ASU) is considering the possibility of starting an online MPA program. To do this, one must conduct a feasibility analysis to see if ASU will benefit from offering an MPA degree online. An effective feasibility analysis needs to look at the mechanisms involved in developing an online degree program. The type of information that is needed is not available in the body of literature as far as the researcher is aware. This research addresses the problem that no research has been done in regards to the mechanisms necessary to develop and implement an effective online degree program.

Purpose

As explained, a problem exists for the discipline in that there is no information available on the mechanisms used to conduct an online degree program. The purpose of research was designated to deal with that problem. The problem is specifically addressed by focusing research on schools that have been accredited by the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) organization. Since exploratory research is typically used when little or nothing is known about a topic, this paper will use that type of research to collect data (Bankes, 1993). Compiling what information is available will help the MPA department staff in their endeavor of implementing an effective online MPA degree program.

Significance

The significance of research can break down into two major categories, academic and social. Academic significance relates to how research adds to a knowledge base. Research was gathered on previously uncollected data, making it clear how the research has added to the academic knowledge base. This was done primarily for ASU's benefit, but it is also for anyone wishing to see what technology and infrastructure is being used for online MPA degree programs.

Social significance is when research has been conducted which helps make a decision, such as whether or not a government organization should implement a certain program. Social significance for ASU would be research that helps determine whether or not ASU should implement an online MPA degree program. Social significance is important, but it is not in the scope of research. Academic significance was the main concern for the researcher. It will be up to future research to determine whether or not ASU needs to take its MPA degree online or keep the program in its current form.

Background

Augusta State University

Augusta State University has a long history in the Augusta, Georgia area (Augusta State University, 2006). It has grown over the years into its current student enrollment of a little over 6,600 students (Augusta State University). It offers accredited degrees in liberal arts and sciences, and offers them in fairly intimate classroom settings. ASU has become an ideal college for local citizens to stay at home and earn a quality degree. It has also seen large expansions in the past few years. Allgood Hall and University Hall were both constructed in the last 10 years and represent a combined $40 million building project. These two buildings offer students a learning experience with adequate teacher to student ratios, and technology that helps make the learning process more conducive (Augusta State University). These growth trends at ASU, especially in terms of utilizing new technologies, show the schools commitment to providing for student's educational needs. It is a good indicator of why ASU may be looking into developing an online MPA degree program.

Master of Public Administration Program

The NASPAA accredited MPA program at ASU offers students an excellent education in public administration (Augusta State University, 2008). According to M. Corkrin (personal communication, January 25^th, 2010), the program is designed around working professionals with classes taking place either at night or on weekends. Aside from the standard Masters degree, students are also able to specialize with a non-profit tract or the newly designed Department of Homeland Security (DHS) tract. Both tracts, and the core courses, offer increased training and education for those wishing to join the public work force. The program's research methods class also helps to cultivate the scientific mind of students, and prepares them for their capstone project. The capstone project is needed for graduation, and represents an over arching culmination of the students work in the program (Augusta State University, 2008).

Developing the program around working professionals also became one of the reasons the MPA program began looking at the possibility of starting an online MPA degree program. Certain types of students are not amenable to the program in its current form. As an example, some students may come from the local army base, Fort Gordon. These students have a chance of not being able to finish their MPA degree at ASU because they may be transferred to another base or deployed. Having an online aspect to the program would allow such individuals to complete their MPA degree through ASU instead of finishing at another university.

Literature review

Online Program Research

After a thorough investigation of academic literature, no work was found that compiled information about mechanisms, standards, and types of students of online programs. The research that is available in the literature is still of value to the researcher. It helps the researcher in determining why universities may take a certain course of action in regards to developing an online program. Therefore, some of the research that has been done on online programs will be looked at along with work done on research design. This will be done to help guide the methodology and formulate analysis in the findings section.

First, it is important to understand that online courses are not merely relegated to the academic environment (Intercom, 2004). Online courses have been successfully implemented in the private sector; they are used with ease and have satisfactory outcomes. Employers like the benefits of online courses because it is a fairly inexpensive, and it can provide hands on training at the same time (Intercom).

Resource allocation is also a large factor in terms of universities developing online programs (Conhaim, 2003). Conhaim argues that universities have to be smarter with their resources; they must learn how to cope with a lack of resources while still maintaining standard operations. Universities need to understand this because the student population at universities is growing, but the university does not necessarily have the capacity to grow itself. Essentially the universities have to worry about where they can afford to spend money and where they cannot. They must also look for cost effective ways to offer education to their current and prospective students. This may cause a university to encourage its various departments to develop online degree programs. Conhaim also notes how corporations have been a large driving force in the online education business. He points out that some corporations are spending upwards of 11 billion dollars or more for training and education in an online environment. This amount of spending in the private sector shows how important continued education, or any education, is to a company.

Research has also been done into the scalability of online programs. Dunn (2005) defines scalability in terms of learning versus the quality of that learning experience. If a class scales well, then the quality of the teaching experience will not be lowered or hindered. Dunn discusses several factors that can help an online class maintain a high quality. According to Dunn the first factor is realizing the expert dependent nature of a course. Dunn believes that the higher the level of education, such as a master degree, the more dependent the course will be on having personal interaction with an instructor. The second factor discussed is how well the course is actually designed. If a course is designed to be less self directed, then it will not be very scalable, and the quality will be sub-par. The final aspect of scalability relates to resources. Resources include the instructor’s ability to interface with students, administrative sanctions, and technical support. Dunn says the most important thing is to make sure the professor is able to effectively deal with students. Essentially, Dunn writes that the professor should have discretion as to how he or she wants to develop their online classes. Though Dunn’s work is insightful, it is also an example of how little work has been done on a scholarly level in regards to online programs, as Dunn’s article was not from a peer reviewed source.

In order to better understand why universities actually implement online learning, Donoghue (2006) studies online learning in Hong Kong. He looks at Hong Kong’s tertiary education environment and how it has been changing. He argues that Hong Kong is facing problems of decreased critical thinking skills, “life-long learning”, and English language deficiencies. Donoghue writes that life-long learning relates to student passion about learning that will follow them throughout their life. He specifically looks at the University of Hong Kong (HKU) and its potential to implement online learning. An important factor that Donoghue analyzes is the student. Where others have mainly pointed towards the school as the primary reason a program will succeed or fail, the students themselves also warrant a look. Donoghue does not completely rule out the school as the primary reason for success or failure, however, he notes the school must know what the make-up of its student body is before it can have an effective program.

Donoghue (2006) found that overall, online learning was capable of solving the problems that HKU was facing by encouraging a high level of student engagement and allowing for flexibility of teaching. He also states, however, that the success of a course on the internet would be based on the course and its contents. Essentially, not all course types would be capable of having success online. This applies to Dunn’s (2005) issue of expert-dependent courses in relation to students. Certain students are not capable of doing a class without personal teaching from a professor, especially if that course would be very dependent on expert supervision. Engineering courses, or anything with high levels of critical thinking ability, would likely be candidates for courses that would not do well in the online environment.

Methodology

Exploratory research is done when little or no research is available on a given topic (Schutt, 2006). Other universities have used exploratory research and its design methods in different ways, such as an aid in teaching (Leinhardt & Wasserman, 1979). In the example of teaching, a pedagogical approach was used to give all available information about different types of models to students, so they could best decide how to choose among the different approaches and mix and match as needed. This can be beneficial in this research, because more than one method of data collection will be needed depending on what type of data is being collected. It is always important to consider the different types of data collection available. Data collection relates to the model and the wrong model can create invalid research given the topic of research (Hodges, 1991). Leonard-Barton (1990) also implies the importance of choosing the right method of research for the job, as she explores the types of longitudinal designs available and their different strengths and weaknesses. This research was not longitudinal due to the nature of the data and time constraints, but the point is nevertheless important, the right methods must be chosen.

In order to facilitate effective data gathering to solve the problem established, several factors had to be dealt with. First, an adequate sample had to be established from the pool of NASPAA accredited MPA programs that have some level of online education. Second, the variables of research had to be defined operationally and conceptually. Once the variables were defined, a survey instrument was developed and administered through survey monkey. All of these points are discussed in further detail in the following sections.

Sample

This present researcher chose a methodology which maximized the efficiency of data collection based on a time constrained window. Data collection comes from a survey instrument that was developed by the researcher and was sent out through survey monkey. There are 48 different universities in the United States that have NASPAA accredited online MPA programs which offer varying degrees of education. These 48 schools either offer classes, a full degree, or an MPA certificate (NASPAA, 2009). In selecting the sample, the researcher had to go to the website of each university to make sure they were labeled correctly and see which ones would be included in the sample.

Twenty-four universities were chosen to be part of the sample to which the survey instrument was sent. The universities not chosen, either did not have degree or certificate programs, or were schools that had a difficult structure for obtaining information. What the researcher determined in terms of difficulty can best be exemplified by Phoenix Online; a person must register with the university to even attempt to get information. There also seems to be no clear direction as to what Phoenix campus has the online program available. To see a full list of schools not included in the study, see Appendix A.

The 24 universities left represent the sample from which all data was collected. There were three types of schools in the research, which the researcher called Type I, Type II, and Type III schools. Type I schools were defined as schools that have an online MPA degree in its entirety for students. Type II schools are ones that only offer online certificates for those who already have a MPA degree and want to further their education with a certificate, such as a certificate in Non-Profit Management. These definitions for Type I and Type II classifications are based from the NASPAA website listing a university as either having an online degree or certificate program. As the researcher became aware, however, these two classifications were not sufficient, so a Type III school was added. Type III schools were defined as ones that show themselves to be a mixture of Type I and II or different altogether. A mixture of Type I and II schools occurs when a school offers an online degree and a certificate online. See Appendix B for a full list of Type I, II, and III schools.

A time-line was created to keep data collection on track with regards to the survey questions that need to be asked (See Appendix C). This time-line outlined when to send out follow up emails, if need be, and when to start calling universities if surveys were not completed. The proposed time-line was altered as time went on. A general log was created showing the process of gathering data from the sample (See Appendix C). Surveys not responded to had to be dealt with by the researcher. The researcher went to the websites of universities that did not participate to gather information that could be found. The specific information gathered from these schools will be discussed in the findings and analysis section.

Variables

The research measured three main variables within the survey instrument. These three variables, when defined operationally, helped comprise the 25 questions found in the survey instrument. The main variables are mechanisms, student information, and online program information. Mechanisms were defined conceptually as anything that helps connect the students with their online classes. Operationally, mechanisms relate to technology and infrastructure that the students and programs use. The programs utilize infrastructure such as Blackboard for hosting online courses, which requires students to have certain hardware and software that enables them to connect to Blackboard through the internet.

Student information was defined by the researcher conceptually as basic information about students, either demographically or by student type. The demographic side broke down into variables about gender and race. Information was gathered about students and the class structure they normally take when they are enrolled in an online MPA degree program. These questions were asked to see if any trend would develop in terms of students taking more classes, or all classes, online when they are enrolled in an online MPA degree program or if they take a mixture of online and on campus classes. It is useful to know this so that certain student types can be sought after appropriately in terms of recruitment.

Online program information as a variable was defined conceptually as data that will validate whether or not the information given by NASPAA's website is accurate. Accuracy will be checked on the basis of whether or not the schools are listed appropriately on NASPAA's website. This became a concern when the researcher found out that Alaska State University was not actually accredited, but Alaska State University is an institutional member. Operationally, online program information deals with whether or not a school is accredited, years of program implementation, how the program was developed, and student academic standards for enrollment.

Survey Instrument

A survey of 25 questions was designed and sent out through survey monkey. First an email (See Appendix D) was sent out explaining the nature of the research. This email had a link to the survey embedded within it (See Appendix E). The questions have been developed out of the three main variables defined above. The progression of the questions was designed to keep the content of the questions organized. They were structured to keep information sets unified, meaning technology questions were found together just as questions about the school were found together. This was done in the hope that it would cause a higher rate of fully completed surveys. The survey begins with questions about the program, including its accreditation. Questions are then asked about the technology requirements on students by the program. Then the questions relate to the infrastructure used by the program, followed by questions about student interaction with the program. The next series of questions dealt with program data such as enrollment and admissions standards. The last series of questions dealt with basic student demographics, and the survey ends with questions about online program development.

Findings and Analysis

Out of the MPA programs chosen, nine participated in the researcher’s survey and twelve did not (See Appendix F). The universities that participated were Troy State University (TSU), Marist College (MC), Mid Western State University (MSU), University of Illinois-Springfield (UIS), University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU), University of Texas at Arlington (UTA), University of Omaha (UNO), and the University of Tennessee Chattanooga (UTC).The remaining universities that surveys were sent to had different reasons for not participating. John Jay College (JJC) opted out of the survey, Oklahoma University (OU) informed the researcher it would be discontinuing its program, and The University of New Mexico (UNM) said it did not have an online degree program anymore.

Findings will be discussed in different groupings based on where the information came from. First, the research that was gathered from completed surveys will be shown. The last data shown comes from the universities that did not participate in the survey along with data from a qualitative interview.

Online Program Information

Out of the nine survey participants MSU, UIS, UTA, and FGCU were found to be Type I schools. UIC and UTC were found to be Type II schools. TSU, MC, and UNO were found to be Type III schools. Type I schools were identified as those who answered that they had an MPA degree with all classes online. Type II schools were identified by their response that they had an MPA certificate program with all classes online. The Type III schools were identified as schools that answered anything differently from the first two choices. Specifically, UNO answered that they were an MPA and certificate degree program with all classes online, while TSU and MC identified themselves as having an MPA degree at their school with only some classes being offered online. The question being answered in this manner for TSU and MC led the researcher to believe they were schools that would not have normally been included in the survey, upon contact with respondents from both schools this assumption was shown to be incorrect. The respondents from MC and TSU both felt they needed to answer the question this way to indicate that they did not have only one type of program. They both wanted to make it clear to the researcher that students can earn an MPA degree in both manners, online and by commuting to school.

All but MC and MSU answered the accreditation question in which the years ranged from a school being accredited in 1978 to as early as 2009 (See Table I below). The researcher had hoped a general trend would emerge between a programs accreditation and how long they have had an online program, but as the data shows no such trend was found. The assumed trend was that programs accredited for a longer period of time would also have online programs implemented for longer periods of time than others.

Table I

Years of NASPAA accreditation

University

Year of Accreditation

Troy State University (TSU)

Marist College (MC)

Mid Western State University (MSU)

University of Illinois – Springfield (UIS)

University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC)

University of Tennessee Chattanooga (UTC)

University of Texas at Arlington (UTA)

University of Omaha (UNO)

Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU)

2009

No Response

N/A

Over two decades ago

2006

1995

2004

1978

2008

TSU, which received accreditation in 2009, responded that it has had an online program for 10 years. FGCU also answered that its online program has been operational for 10 years, while at the same time UNO which received accreditation in 1978 has had its online program running for 10 years. MC’s online program has also been operational for 10 years, but MC did not give its date of accreditation to compare against the others. The most recent online program started was by UIC which received accreditation in 2006; its program has only been operational for one semester. The remaining schools did not offer any different information that could show a link between time of accreditation and when their online program was started.

In terms of program implementation, only six of the nine schools gave any information in regards to how fast their program was developed. Out of these six schools, TSU, MSU, and UNO answered that their program was developed gradually. MC, UIS, and FGCU answered that their program was developed all at once. There was also no seemingly relevant correlation between the length of time a school has had an online program and how fast their program was developed. MC and FGCU answered that have had online programs for 10 years and answered that they developed their programs all at once. TSU and UNO, two other schools which have had online programs for 10 years, said they were developed gradually. MSU responded that its program was developed gradually and UIS said its program was developed all at once. Continuing with information about the programs themselves, the respondents were asked a general question about factors that motivated their departments to start up an online program. The possible responses were as follows: reach more students, increase revenue; space was not available for more traditional students, and other. The “other” response allowed for the respondent to write in their response as did all questions that had the “other” response. TSU, MC, MSU, UIS, UNO, and FGCU answered that a motivating factor was to reach more students. TSU and UIS also answered that a motivating factor was to increase revenue.

As a final series of questions about program information, the schools were asked whether or not their programs were modeled after an existing program. This was a filter question that would end with either the respondent going to an open ended question about what program they modeled theirs after, or an open ended question asking them to relay any information at all in terms of what guidelines they used. MC, MSU, UIS, UNO, and FGCU responded that no existing program was used to model their schools program after. TSU, MC, MSU, and UNO answered the final filter question about what resources were used in developing their online program. The TSU respondent wrote that they were not involved with any program implementation so they could not be of help. Respondents from MC and MSU explained that their programs were, and are, enhanced through technology. UNO indicated that its online program came from the University of Nebraska Central Administration “prioritization” initiative. This initiative named UNO’s school of Public Administration as one of 13 “priority programs” in the state. UNO relayed that this designation resulted in new faculty and competitiveness for enhancing resources used in distance learning. Distance learning is a term that can be used in reference to online education programs of any type. UNO’s response shows how the academic community, specifically the state university system, can help influence the path in which a school may take their program. This unfortunately does not help in seeing how a program will actually use mechanisms or infrastructure to accomplish the goal of implementing an online program.

Academic Standards, General Information, and Admissions

TSU, MC, MSU, UIS, UIC, UNO, and FGCU gave information about approximate enrollment at their university (See Table II Below). This data shows that a fairly robust range of schools in terms of enrollment are utilizing online degree programs. This data was also looked in reference to program implementation motivating factors.

Table II

Approximate Enrollment

University

Enrollment

UIC

TSU

UNO

FGCU

MSU

UIS

25,000

20,000 +

14,000

11,000

6,000

6,500

5,000

No respondents answered that a motivating factor for developing an online program was because they did not have classroom space for traditional students. Given the literature on resource allocation, it was assumed that this may be a motivating decision factor for universities, but this showed to be incorrect. It is clear that school size does not have any bearings on having to develop an online program because of scarce resources. The data also does not indicate whether or not a program will have resource problems in terms of money or classroom space due to enrollment size.

The schools were also asked about what they require for admissions. Specifically the researcher asked if universities require: a resume, letter(s) of recommendation, letter of interest, high school transcripts, college transcripts, graduate/professional transcripts, Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) scores, or a writing sample. Seven of the nine schools responded to this section (See Table III Below). The information in Table V can be used to correlate with any university who wishes to start its own online degree program. The university can judge whether or not their application process meets that of its peers in the academic community.

Table III

Requirements for Application

Requirements

TSU

MSU

UIS

UIC

UTC

UTA

UNO

FGCU

Resume

Letter(s) of Recommendation

Letter of Interest

High School Transcripts

College Transcripts

Graduate/Professional Transcripts

GRE Scores

Writing Sample

N = No; Y= Yes; NR = No Response

There was also a chance for the schools to list something in the “other” choice, but no school put any response in that choice.

It was hoped that a correlation could be made between a Type I, II, or III School and whether or not they required an undergraduate versus a graduate Grade Point Average (GPA). This was not possible, as a Type II school (UNO) listed a 3.0 for undergraduate and graduate requirements, a type I (UIC) listed an undergraduate GPA of 3.0, and a Type III (FGCU) listed a GPA of 0. The 0 GPA was linked to a response in the question about what minimum GRE score was required, they answered on that question that there was no minimum; instead they look at an average of GRE, GPA, and other factors for admission.

In line with this, the question about a minimum GRE score had an array of answers. TSU indicated its minimum GRE score requirement is 837. MC responded that the GRE was optional but did not indicate what else the student could take. MSU answered that they use a combination of work history along with GRE scores and letters of reference. UNO wrote that they do not have a minimum cut off score. UIS wrote that its program looks at multiple indicators of capabilities but did not list what those indicators might be. Finally, FGCU responded that its program looks at a mix of a student’s GRE/GMAT score and GPA.

Respondents were also asked about whether or not they require students to participate in an internship. ASU, for instance requires MPA students to participate in an internship if they have not had enough experience in the public or non-profit sector, or enough professional work experience in general. The main desire of the research was to see whether or not having an online degree program would change this kind of practice. Six out of the nine participants answered this question, with 33.3% saying they did not require an internship, with the remaining 66.7% saying they decide it on a case by case basis (See Table IV).

Table IV

Internship Requirements

No Requirement

Case by Case Decision

UIS

UNO

TSU

MSU

FGCU

TSU, MSU, UNO, and FGCU gave statistics about gender in their respective programs. Each had varying degrees of percentages of men versus women and vice versa. On average, however, the number of women comprises 53.75% of students, while men make up 46.25%. In terms of race, only TSU and UNO responded to the matrix based question which listed Caucasians, African American, and other as the categories. The matrix was listed in increments of 20, with the first being 0-20% and continuing from there. This was a difficult question to form, and the researcher knew before hand this may be a difficult question to ask. It would be difficult because it is not something someone would know immediately unless they looked it up in their schools records, so a low response was expected on this question. This question was still deemed important in terms of comparability, however, and was therefore asked. UNO responded that 80-100% of students are Caucasian, with less than 20% of students being comprised of African Americans and other. TSU answered that there were equal percentages of Caucasians and African Americans (41-60%), with less than 20% for other.

Mechanisms

Technology

As seen in Appendix G, Windows 2000 was the most common operating system requirement placed on students. The prevalence of this answer shows that students wishing to take an online degree program do not have to worry about having the most up-to-date operating system software to take their classes. It also means that infrastructure such as Blackboard is capable of working with many types of systems and configurations.

Only MC and MSU answered the question about what minimum processor was allowed for students taking online courses. The non write in answers were as follows: Pentium III 500 Mhz or better, Pentium IV 1 Ghz or better, Intel Core Duo 1.6 Ghz or better, Intel Quad Core 2Ghz or better. MC responded that they allow all types of processors listed and added that they also allow “mac chip” for a processor. MSU responded that the Pentium III 500 Mhz or better processor was its set minimum. In terms of RAM, MSU choose 512 MB of RAM as the minimum, MC choose 1 GB, FGCU choose 2 GB, and TSU choose RAM appropriate for the operating system. No respondent choose 64 MB, 128 MB, or 256 MB as a minimum RAM requirement.

Since the research was centered on online degree programs, a question was asked about the minimum internet connection speed. Five out of the nine participants answered this question with MC, MSU, UNO, and FGCU listing a 56k dial up modem as sufficient for students taking online classes. TSU responded that it requires students to have at least a broadband digital subscriber line (DSL) connection speed. In regards to students being required to have some sort of microphone or headset for classes, only UTC did not respond. The rest of the respondents answered that they did not require any type of headset, microphone, or combination of the two.

Infrastructure

In looking at those who responded; TSU, MSU, UIS, UIC, UTA, and UNO utilize Blackboard as their infrastructure. MC wrote in that it uses SAIKAI and FGCU uses Angel. In terms of a student’s ability to take a class entirely online or not; TSU, MC, MSU, UIS, UIC, UNO, and FGCU responded that students can do this. UTA answered that students take a mix of online and on-campus classes. In the follow-up question TSU, MC, UIS, and UTA wrote in responses. All four had the same general theme that the school did not want to restrict students to only one form. A student could take all classes online if they wanted, but it was up to their preference.

It is also important to understand how the Blackboard experience works. Blackboard works with universities to give an infrastructure that students and faculty can log into in order to access information. Blackboard offers a demonstration of their services for prospective students who wish to take an online course. To give a brief summary of the process, a student must create an account with the website, choosing a user name and password. The student is then able to log into Blackboard and access the material. They will access Blackboard through their university website. Once they are in the system, they may access a specific class they are taking and access files. The accounts created by the students are then linked to their university identification, so it will automatically update what classes are available as the student registers those classes. This is similar to ASU’s own WEBCT system, as the accounts of the student at school are linked to WEBCT so classes are always automatically updated. They may also access the video conferencing, chat rooms, and other necessary functions through this system.

Data From Non-Participants

The researcher went to the websites of the universities that did not participate in the survey to see what information could be gathered. All information that was gathered in terms of technology and infrastructure can be seen in Appendix H. Information regarding admissions standards for the universities can be found in Appendix I. It is possible that some information only becomes available to students who are actually enrolled or registered with the university; such was the case with Phoenix Online, which is one of the reasons that university was excluded from the sample. However, the information that was found on the other websites led the researcher to conclude that Blackboard’s official requirements should be looked at for hardware and software specifications. This was found through DePaul’s website, and as most of those who responded to the survey, as well as those who did not, utilize Blackboard, it was appropriate to include this data.

For PC, a 333 MHZ Intel Pentium processor or equivalent was listed as the minimum, while for MAC it was OS 8.1 or later. Both PC and MAC requirements for RAM was listed as 128MB. A 56Kbps modem was listed as a minimum. In terms of Software, Blackboard listed that Windows 95 is the minimum operating system required for students to view video on the internet, in conjunction with at least a 28.8 Kbps modem, and an appropriate internet browser. The supported browsers for Blackboard are Opera, Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Safari, with multiple editions of each supported.

Blackboard also requires Java plug-ins for students to be able to use certain functions. Adobe Reader is also required for students wishing to take classes using the Blackboard infrastructure. Lastly, students also need to have an appropriate media player, such as Windows Media Player, Macromedia Flash Player, Real Time Player, Apple QuickTime or a program equivalent to any of these. Students may also be required to have Zipped (ZIP) file software such as WinRAR. WinRAR compresses files into .ZIP files and also decompresses .ZIP files. According to the researcher, WinRAR should be seen as a very important tool to have for universities and students. It is important because of its ability to mitigate strain on a computer system. WinRAR can take a file that is the size of several megabytes and turn it into kilobyte size. This would be especially helpful for computer set ups where a person has a slower internet speed connection in terms of uploading and downloading information for classes. The other programs are also important, but they are all more likely to be installed on a student's computer than WinRAR is.

Qualitative Interview

Due to a low response rate in regard to the surveys, it was determined by the researcher and colleagues that some sort of interview should be done, if possible, with someone who would know about their programs online structure. An opportunity presented itself at an American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) Georgia chapter meeting at Kennesaw State University. The researcher interviewed a respondent from Troy State University to gather qualitative data about how Troy State University runs their online MPA program.

Several issues came up that the researcher did not originally think of adding into a survey instrument. The respondent talked about the process that professors must go through in order to teach an online class. The respondent stated that for Troy State University professors, they must receive an e-certification in online teaching before they are allowed to teach.

The respondent also talked in depth about the need for programs and professors to realize the limitations of online classes. He elucidated that certain classes are of such a depth that they should not be done online. He talked about a Capstone class within an MPA program as a prime example. The respondent felt like such a class needed face-to-face interaction between a professor and student because of the difficulty of the class in general. He also said that having such a class online would increase the chances of a student not completing the class on time. His discussion on the matter resonates with Dunn’s (2005) view that some classes are highly expert-dependent and may not be possible to do in an online environment.

He also raised issues about what Troy State University does to ensure academic honesty from students. According to the interviewee, in the past Troy State University relied on timed tests online as a way to try and ensure academic honesty, but there were many fears it was not working. To address this, Troy State University implemented two systems for students taking online classes. The first method is to require students taking online classes to hire a proctor. Military personnel are able to utilize their superiors, and non-military personnel can hire someone in the education field such as a person at Sylvan Learning centers. The other option is for students to buy a device that will make a video recording of them taking the test, and also has a biometrics system for logging into the site to take the test. No specifics were given as to how well this is working over past methods to stop academic dishonesty.

Discussion

Even though the response rate was relatively low given the desired sample of 24 universities, there was still relevant data that was analyzed from the survey instrument. In regards to technology, no one response stands out from the others. What the researcher means is there seems to be no general standard of technology that schools are using. Furthermore, the infrastructure used by the programs seems to run on relatively simple machines, which would indicate the programs are accessible to a wide audience of students.

It is also clear from the data, that the implementation is student oriented. This is indicated by responses which revealed programs were developed to reach more students, and that the structures of on-campus and off-campus classes are tailored to student preference. Due to this fact, it may be wise for any schools looking into implementing their own online MPA program to survey students at their own school to see what they would be looking for with an online program. Potential students should also be surveyed to see what they may be looking for in an online degree program. It is also important to note that nearly all of the universities, eight out of nine who responded, also said they have fully asynchronous programs. This means that a department within a university wishing to start up an online program must decide in its start up how they are going to tailor to students. Setting up for completely asynchronous programs means that anyone anywhere can apply and take classes, it must then be decided if all classes offered online will still be offered on campus to make a well rounded program.

Limitations of Study

Some of the limitations of the study can be seen as difficulties with getting information from universities. This was seen as understandable because of the limited amount of time the researcher had to conduct research, and how personal schedules can create conflicts. Originally only three universities responded to the survey, leaving 21 universities for the researcher to try and get responses from. After email correspondence with some universities, it was found that a few could not participate in the survey for various reasons listed before in the research. Adequate time was given, that did not necessarily follow the prescribed time-line that the researcher created, for universities to respond.

One of the weakest findings in the survey relates to GPA requirements by universities. Only three of the nine schools who participated answered this question. It came to the researcher’s attention after talking to a participant recently, that the question was not functioning properly on survey monkey. It would not allow a person to input anything but a whole number. The person the researcher was talking to, wanted to input 2.75 and was not able to. Those that left the question blank may have wanted to respond similarly but were unable to.

Concerns with Data

One area of concern with the data from these surveys is generalizibility. This is due to the fact that out of the surveys sent, only nine schools responded. Some of the most important findings that came about regard the development of online programs. As stated before, the majority of schools said they developed programs to reach more students. This would mean that if this becomes a model for deciding how to develop a program, a school would need to look into whether or not they need to reach more students, or at least decide why they are thinking of developing an online program in the first place. There was also no substantial information given about online program models that can be used to help a program start their own online program up. This means that in terms of data that can be used for future research, certain parts of the data will be insufficient.

Another area of concern, however, is in regards to shortcomings of the question on requiring a webcam, microphone, or headset for students. This is seen as a shortcoming on question design; there should have been a way for schools to describe why students did not need this equipment for an asynchronous online class. It may have been that most of this equipment was considered to be standard for students, that only speakers were needed, or that the infrastructure used took care of those requirements.

Recommendations

The main recommendation came out of some of the limitations of the study in regards to a possibility of faulty question design. The researcher means that some questions could have been clearer. Questions being unclear may have attributed to low participation as well as questions being skipped. It is recommended that a pretest should be done for anyone in the future that would want to use a similar survey to get this type of information. A pretest may be able to find some of these awkward or unclear questions and make them more acceptable.

It is also recommended that some sort of follow up research be done in regards to online programs that are not MPA programs. In talking with the respondent from Troy State University, he indicated that the way the MPA department conducts their online class structure is no different from any other department at Troy State University. This seems to guide the research along the lines that online classes have some type of general structure, especially if they are designed to be asynchronous. The general structure would be a school that uses Blackboard as its infrastructure and has all of the basic technological requirements listed in the research. The general structure would also be indicated by a any school which has a complete MPA degree offered online and on-campus.

This would also help in gathering more responses to make a more generalizable study. It would also be helpful to check universities that are not listed on the NASPAA website as having online MPA programs. Though NASPAA accredited are required to have high academic standards for admission, the main concern is how well an online program is developed and run. This type of information could be collected from schools without NASPAA accreditation.

References

Augusta State University. (October, 2006). About asu. Retrieved on December 20^th, 2009,

from www.aug.edu/about_asu.htm

Augusta State University. (October, 2008). ASU MPA. Retrieved on December 20^th, 2009,

from www.aug.edu/mpa

Augusta State Unversity. (October, 2006). Infocentral. Retrieved on December 20^th, 2009,

from www.aug.edu/infocentral.htm

Bankes, Steve. (1993). Exploratory modeling for policy analysis. Operations Research

41 (3) 435-449

Blackboard. (2000). Educational benefits of online learning.

http://www.uth.tmc.edu/med/administration/edu_programs/ep/blackboard/text/Online_Le

arning_Benefits.pdf

Conhaim, Wallys W. (2003). Education ain’t what it used to be. Information Today

20 (11), 37-38, retrieved on October 27, 2009, from EBSCOhost

Donoghue, S.L. (2006). Institutional potential for online learning: A Hong Kong case study.

Educational Technology & Society, 9 (4), 78-94

Dunn, Suzanne. (2005). Designing for more students, sections: An interview with Suzanne

Dunn. Distance Education Report, 9(15), 8. Retrieved on October 30, 2009, from

OmniFile Full Text Mega database

Intercom. (2004). Installation school online. Sound & Video Contractor, 22(11), 28-32,

Retrieved on October 27, 2009, from EBSCOhost

Hodges, S. James. (1991). Six (or so) things you can do with a bad model.

Operations Research. 39 (3) 355-365

Leonard-Barton, Dorothy. (1990). A duel methodology for case studies: Synergistic

use of a longitudinal single site with replicated multiple sites. Organization

Science. 1 (3) 248-266

Leinhardt, S. & Wasserman, S. Stanley. (1979). Teaching regression: An exploratory approach.

The American Statistician. 33 (3) 196-203

Macleod, D. (2004, April 13). The online revolution, mark II. Education Guardian

Retrieved on October 26, 2009, from http://education.guardian.co.uk/elearning

/story/0,10577,1190470,00.html

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research (4^th ed.).

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

NASPAA. (June, 2009). On-line courses & degrees. Retrieved on April 18, 2010,

from http://www.naspaa.org/students/clearinghouse/clearinghouse.asp

Schutt, R. K. (2006). Investigating the social world: The process and practice of research

(5^th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Appendix A

1. Arizona State University

2. Central Michigan University

3. Cleveland State University

4. East Carolina University

5. Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis

6. Kentucky State University

7. Mid-America Christian University

8. Missouri State University

9. Pace University

10. Park University

11. Seton Hall University

12. Shippensburg University

13. Strayer University

14. SUNY College at Brockport

15. Tennessee State University

16. University of La Verne

17. University of Minnesota

18. University of Nevada, Las Vegas

19. University of Toledo

20. Walden University

21. Kent State University

22. University of Alaska Southeast

23. Virginia Commonwealth University

24. Valdosta State University

Appendix B

Type I Schools:

1. California State University-Dominqeuz Hills

2. California State University of San Bernandino

3. Depaul University

4. Florida Gulf Coast University

5. Indiana State University

6. Midwestern State University

7. University of Baltimore

8. University of Central Florida

9. University of Colorado at Denver

10. University of Illinois at Springfield

11. University of Illinois at Chicago

12. University of Omaha

13. University of North Dakota

14. Upper Iowa University

15. University of Texas at Arlington

Type II Schools:

1. George Mason University, Dept of Public Administration

2. John Jay College of Criminal Justice – CUNY

3. New York University

4. University of South Dakota

5. The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

Type III Schools:

1. Troy State University

2. Marist College

Appendix C

Emails sent 02/15(16)/2010

Wait until 02/25/2010

Follow up emails (if needed) 02/25(26)/2010

Wait until 03/07/2010

Start phone interviews if needed 03/07(08)/2010

Log:

The emails were sent on February 15, 2010, as planned, however the survey was not sent with them as originally planned. Originally the researcher had questions attached to the emails as a Word document. These questions were all open ended and after consultation with colleagues, it was determined that they were inadequate. It was during this time that it was decided a survey would be developed through survey monkey and then sent to the schools. Therefore, the first email sent was an email letting the schools know what the research was about and asking them to participate. It was planned that the survey would then be sent a week after this on February 22, 2010. It took considerably longer than expected to develop and have the survey approved, however, and the email with the survey was not actually sent until March 1^st, 2010.

Since the time frame was altered, and the survey was sent later than expected, the researcher decided to contact universities sooner than originally planned. This was done because only three schools initially participated in the survey. Around March 15^th, 2010, the researcher began calling universities. Through the efforts of the researcher, the response rate increased to nine universities. The remaining universities did not participate, even after repeated attempts at contact through phone calls and a last attempt email. It was decided by the researcher on April 7^th that no more attempts would be made to contact the universities as the information needed to be finalized by the 22^nd based on the class schedule of the Capstone class the researcher was enrolled in. The researcher then went ahead as planned and gathered what data could be found from the websites of universities that did not participate.

Appendix D

Dear sir/Madame,

Hello, my name is Aaron Price; I am currently in my final semester at Augusta State University in Augusta, Georgia, earning an MPA degree. I am writing you today in the hopes you will be able to assist me in my capstone research. I am doing research on online MPA programs. I am looking at the mechanisms used in online MPA programs, basic information about students, and some information about why schools started their online programs. I am looking at schools that offer either an online MPA degree or an online MPA certificate.

Because Augusta State University is NASPAA accredited I am mainly concerned with schools who are also NASPAA accredited. If you are willing to participate, I will be administering a brief survey through surveymonkey.com. I will be sending out the survey instrument on February 22, 2010 and hope you will participate when you are able to.

If you are interested, I will be more than willing to share my finished capstone project with you as thanks for your help.

Please feel free to contact me at 706-394-0842 if you have any questions or concerns about my project. I look forward to hearing from you through e-mail or phone.

P.S. If I am contacting the wrong person who could information about the program, I would appreciate it if you could relay me to the appropriate person.

Sincerely,

Aaron Price

Appendix E

1. Which of the following best describes your online program in terms of what level of education it offers?

a. MPA degree (all classes online)

b. MPA certificate (all classes online)

c. MPA degree and certificate (all classes online)

d. MPA degree (some classes online)

e. MPA certificate (some classes online)

2. What year did your MPA program receive NASPAA accreditation?

3. How long has your online program for a MPA degree or certificate been operational?

4. What is the minimum operating system requirement for students to be able to access their classes online? (check all that apply)

a. Windows 2000

b. Windows NT

c. Windows XP with SP2

d. Windows Vista

e. Mac OS X

f. Other (please specify):

5. What is the minimum pc/mac processor allowed for students taking online classes?

a. Pentium III 500 Mhz or better

b. Pentium IV 1 Ghz or better

c. Intel Core Duo 1.6 Ghz or better

d. Intel Quad Core 2 Ghz or better

e. Other (please specify):

6. What is the minimum RAM requirements on student computers for taking online classes?

a. 64 MB

b. 128 MB

c. 256 MB

d. 512 MB

e. 1 GB

f. 2 GB

g. RAM appropriate for the operating system

h. Other (please specify):

7. What is the minimum internet connection speed required for students taking classes in your online MPA program?

a. 56k Dial up Modem

b. Broadband DSL

c. Broadband Cable

d. T1 Connection

e. T3 Connection

8. Which of the following do you require for students taking classes in your online MPA program?

a. Microphone

b. Webcam

c. Webcam/Microphone combo

d. None of the above

e. Other (please specify):

9. Do you use Blackboard as the main infrastructure for students to access their online classes?

a. Yes (skip to question 11)

b. No (continue to question 10)

10. What infrastructure do you use (similar to Blackboard) that allows students to access their online class?

11. Which of the following best describes how students interact with their online classes?

a. Student can take classes completely online (Asynchronous)(skip to question 13)

b. Mix of on-campus and online classes (continue to question 12)

12. Could you briefly discuss the reasons behind having a system of on-campus and online classes for your program instead of having a fully online program?

13. What is the estimated enrollment at your university

14. What is the minimum GRE score required for admission to your online degree/certificate program? If you do not use GRE scores, please indicate what system you do use, along with a minimum score.

15. What is the minimum GPA required for admission to your online program?

a. Undergraduate GPA:

b. Graduate GPA:

16. Which of the following does your program require in the application process for your online program? (check all that apply)

a. Resume

b. Letter(s) of recommendation

c. Letter of interest

d. High school transcripts

e. College transcripts

f. Graduate/Professional transcripts

g. GRE scores

h. Writing sample

i. Other (please specify):

17. Do you require your students in your online MPA program to complete an internship?

a. Yes

b. No

c. Decided on a case by case basis

18. Do the majority of students taking classes in your online program live out-of-state?

a. Yes

b. No

19. What is the estimated gender ratio composition in your online program?

a. Men:

b. Women:

20. What is the estimated racial demographic ratio composition of your students taking classes in your online program?

a. Caucasian: 0-20% 21-40% 41-60% 61-80% 81-100%

b. African: 0-20% 21-40% 41-60% 61-80% 81-100%

American

c. Other : 0-20% 21-40% 41-60% 61-80% 81-100%

(Asian, Native American, etc)

21. How would you describe the process for your online MPA program in terms of development, was it developed:

a. Gradual

b. All at once

c. Other (please specify):

22. What are some of the factors that motivated your department or university to start an online MPA program? (check all that apply)

a. Reach more students

b. Increase Revenue

c. Space was not available for more traditional students

d. Other (please specify):

23. Was your online MPA program modeled after an existing program?

a. Yes (continue to question 24)

b. No (skip to question 25)

24. Briefly describe the existing program that you modeled your MPA program after.

25. Please briefly describe any other resources you utilized in creating your online program.

Appendix F

Survey Completion
Participated	No Participation
Troy State University (TSU) Marist College (MC) Mid Western State University (MSU) University of Illinois-Springfield (UIS) University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) University of Tennessee Chattanooga (UTC) University of Texas at Arlington (UTA) University of Omaha (UNO) Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU)	University of South Dakota (USD) University of Baltimore (UB) DePaul University University of North Dakota (UND) University of Colorado Denver (UCD) University of Central Florida (UCF) Indiana State University (ISU) California State University – San Bernardino (CSUSB) George Mason University (GMU) New York University (NYU) California State University – Dominguez Hills (CSUDH) Upper Iowa University (UIU)

Appendix G

Minimum Operating System Requirements

Figure 1 Shows that Windows 2000 was the lowest minimum operating system.

The most answered after Windows 2000 is Windows Vista and Mac OS X.

This creates a fairly simple standard that most students should be able to meet.

Appendix H

Technology Information from Non-Respondents
University	Operating System	Processor and Speed	RAM	Network Connection Speed	Blackboard
JJC	No data	No data	No data	No data	Yes
USD	Windows 2000, Mac OS X 10.1, Linux	Any Processor with at least 1 GHz speed	512 MB	No data	No, uses Desire2Learn (D2L)
UB	Windows 95	Pentium, 200 MHz	64 MB	56k Modem or faster	No, uses in house infrastructure UBOnline
DePaul	No data	No data	No data	No data	Yes
UND	Windows 2000, XP, Vista, and 7. Mac 10.2 or higher	1 Ghz or better	512 MB	DSL	No data
UCD	No data	No data	No data	No data	Yes
UCF	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data
ISU	Windows XP, Vista	Pentium 4, 2.4 GHz or faster	1 GB or more (2 GB for Vista)	Cable, DSL, T1 or faster	No data, seems to be in house infrastructure
CSUSB	Windows 98 SE	Pentium II, 400 MHz or better	64 MB	56k Modem or faster	Yes
GMU	No data	No data	No data	No data	Yes
NYU	No data	No data	No data	No data	No data
CSUDH	No data	No data	No data	No data	Yes
UIU	Windows 2000, XP, Vista. Mac 10.2 or higher	No data	No data	56k Modem or faster	No, they use in house infrastructure

Appendix I

Admissions Information for Non-Respondents

Requirements

JJC

USD

DePaul

UND

UCD

UCF

ISU

CSUSB

GMU

NYU

CSUDH

UIU

Resume

Letter(s) of Recommendation

Letter of Interest

High School Transcripts

College Transcripts

Graduate/Professional Transcripts

GRE/GMAT scores

Writing Sample

Undergraduate GPA

3.0

2.7

3.0

2.75

2.5

3.0

2.75

Graduate GPA

3.0

GWE

TOEFL

600

N = No ; Y = Yes ; ND = No Data

*Only required for international students.

- UCD and NYU apparently require the person to register an account with the university before admissions information can be given.

- GWE are Graduate Writing Exams, required by CSUSB

- TOEFL is an English proficiency test that is normally used for international students.