Boethius and Music Theory

Perhaps the best known Roman musician was not a musician at all, but a philosopher- theorist named Boethius. Boethius and his contemporaries did not consider that any of the studies they did (mathematical and logical works) to be original in nature, but merely an explanation of basic principles of fact.

Boethius

Boethius’ work in philosophy was augmented by his wide-ranging interests in other intellectual areas, including music, theology, logic, and arithmetic. Those interests were indulged both in original works and in adaptations and translations of earlier treatises of Greek and Latin antiquity. Much of the work he produced in this vein became central to the curriculum of the Latin Middle Ages. This is true for the De Arithemtica, shown here, which Boethius adapted in around 520 from Nicomachus’ Introductio Arithmetica, and also for his De Musica, which held much the same place in the medieval curriculum, both in the monastic schools that arose quickly in the west in the Carolingian period, and in the later cathedral schools and

Boethius was the author of The Principles of Music (De Institutione Musica) written in the early 6th century, and it was considered to be the stepping stone to understanding music throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Boethius then went on to write discussions of the four mathematical disciplines, the Quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy) thus laying a scientific foundation with these works. As the author of The Fundamentals of Music he provided the basics of musical theories and conclusions regarding the study of music. This work is highly recognized and still used today because it provides a comprehensive discussion of what music is and defines through reason its place in the universe. Boethius decided that music had to be broken into three musical types:

Music of the universe (musica mundana),

Music of human beings (musica humana)

Instrumental music (musica instrumentalis)

The study of music would include observing these three elements as well as the theoretical ideas studied in the Quadrivium which related music to numbers, and promoted an understanding of consonance and dissonance in music.

The cultural, social, and political institutions of ancient Rome were formed and influenced by several ancient cultures (Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Arab). In particular, the Romans owe a great deal to the musical and cultural practices of ancient Greece and Etruscan cultures. Music was central to Roman religious ceremony, civic activity, entertainment, the military and the culture of work as early as the era of the Kings (750 BCE - 510 BCE). The earliest and perhaps the most important influences were the Etruscans, and later, the Greeks. Rome absorbed, extended and modified music along with many other cultural forms from the various territories it conquered. From the 2nd century BC this influence of foreign cultures on Rome increased rapidly as the former kingdoms of Alexander's Empire, Greece, Macedonia, Syria and Egypt, fell under Roman domination. Syria and Egypt in particular, were wealthy and rich in musical traditions. Professional virtuosi, often Greek, gave public performances, Egyptian and Syrian pantomime artists performed to orchestral accompaniment. Dancers and musicians toured the known world and great festivals were held regularly in the cities of the empire. By the end of the 2nd century BCE, musicians and actors had formed industry bodies, musical instruments were being constantly developed, musical scholarship was growing and the development of widespread musical amateurism indicates a spread of musical education and appreciation.

The Romans conquered ancient Greece in 146 B.C.E. and assimilated and adapted Greek music and religion into Roman culture. The "educated" people of Greece (i.e. philosophers, musicians, artists) became Roman slaves, who in turn educated the Roman elite via the Greek Classics. Nevertheless, it is the Roman writings of Cicero, Quintilian, and others document the use of music for purely entertainment purposes at large festivals with choruses and instrumental ensembles.

Music in Roman Life

If one were to compare and contrast the role of musicians in Greek and Roman cultures, several important differences would appear. Among the Greeks music was an important part of the education of every Greek citizen. Everyone learned to sing, dance, and play a musical instrument. Professional musicians in Greek society were publicly recognized for their talent and expressive capabilities, for Greek music had a greater purpose in Greek society. By contrast, in the Roman Republic music was not so highly esteemed. Music was not considered part of the essential education of the elites and amateur performance of music was not encouraged; professional musicians were held in low regard because music was used primarily as entertainment (not as an art form). This situation gradually changed due to the influences of Greek music: music became more respectable both in professional and amateur contexts. Although still often decried by some Roman authors as signs of decadence, musical performances were common and skilled musicians highly valued.

Music was central to Roman religious ceremony, civic activity, entertainment, the military, and the activities of daily work. Music was an important part of theater performances. A special theater in which music was played was called an Odeon. Later, as an imperial power, Rome absorbed, extended, and modified musical (as well as other cultural forms) from the vast territories it conquered. Roman music was most often associated with Roman politics and the function of entertainment for the Roman elite. In the Roman theatre the orchestra is a place to sit, instead of a performance area as the Greeks used it. The Roman stage grew in importance and came into direct contact with Roman audiences. The auditorium was a semicircle, often partially supported by a hill underneath as well as concrete vaulting. Corridors under the tiers were used in case of rain. The Theatre at Orange is the best preserved Roman Theatre still in existence. Regarding the theatre, there were many influential cultural figures who criticized the 'demoralizing and effeminate' effects of theatrical music. People like Seneca, Quintilian, Plutarch, Juvenal and Tacitus all railed against this modern decadence and longed for the older simpler days when music would see off an army, call in the harvest, or lend dignity to the numerous rituals which filled the Roman calendar, although music of course still performed these ancient functions. All but a few aristocratic musicians held low social position, whilst enjoying continual public favor and later, imperial patronage.

As the Roman Empire expanded, the day to day demand for the skills of musicians grew. Musicians, like other artists, organized themselves into competing guilds, like our modern-day labor union organizations, fitting well into the administrative consciousness of Rome. The guilds functioned as brokerage houses for musicians, dancers, actors, writers and stage personnel who comprised the talent for monumental spectacles of public entertainment. These guilds grew so powerful as to be courted by several Roman Emperors. Often times, the guilds were exempt from taxation in return for political support. Music was very important at the many Roman festivals on the Roman Calendar. Despite the pervasive presence of music in daily Roman life, most of Roman culture was not literate, but relied a great deal on oral transmission of ideas, myths, news, and history through music and the human voice.

Two Views of the Roman Coliseum

reconstruction drawing of Colosseum

Roman Musical Instruments

The instruments available to Greek and Roman musicians covered a diverse range of instruments that represented musical traditions from all over the Roman Empire. Curiously, the vast majority of musical instruments are not Roman in origin, but were readily adopted into Roman musical practices. Thus, the musical traditions of the "conquered" became the music of the "conqueror" (Rome). Stringed instruments known to the Romans included harps, lyres, kithara, and barbitoi; the lute came later on (perhaps from Egypt or the Near East). Of the wind instruments, the syrinx and aulos (Greek origin) were the most common, while various other flutes and whistles were known. The panpipe was a group of pipes bound together. Horns and trumpets of various kinds are known, often used for hunting and in military contexts. Percussion instruments included drums, tambourines, cymbals, and castanets. The majority of music for which we have surviving notation was vocal, and singing was probably the most common form of musical activity.

Syrinx (panpipe), Aulos, Auloi

Tympanum & Aulos

Professional virtuosi musicians (often Greek), gave public performances at Roman palaces. One might have seen Egyptian or Syrian pantomime artists performing to orchestral accompaniment, or touring dancers and musicians competing a great festivals. By the 2nd century B.C.E., musicians were already formed into guilds or unions, and widespread musical amateurism (spread of musical education, appreciation, and study) was common throughout the Empire. Most musicians held low social position, even though they might enjoy public patronage and imperial patronage.

Roman Kitharas

The Kithara (of Greek origin) was still the favorite accompanying instrument for Roman singing.

The Tympanum (Tambourine)

The Roman Hydraulis

The hydraulis is the first keyboard musical instrument in the history and the ancestor of the later church organ. It consisted of one or more sets of metal pipes of different sizes, which were supplied with air at constant pressure by a hydraulic mechanical device and activated, so as to produce sound, by special keys. The Hydraulis was a simple but ingenious structure, which demonstrates the high level of technological thought, developed in the ancient Greek world. According to the ancient accounts of Athenaeus, of Philon of Byzantium and, indirectly, of Vitruvius, the Hydraulis was invented by the famous engineer Ctesibius, who lived in Alexandria in the third century BC. Apart from the many interesting ancient references to the hydraulis, two detailed descriptions have survived: that of Vitruvius (De Architectura x, 8) and Heron of Alexandria (Pneumatica, I, 42). These descriptions deal primarily with the mechanical device by which the instrument was supplied with air, and its key mechanism.

The hydraulis, after its invention, spreads quickly in the Hellenistic and Roman world. In Rome, it was played in theatres, festivals and even in the amphitheaters, and became the favorite instrument of the ruling class and of emperors such as Nero, Ancient references to the hydraulis and the many depictions of it reveal that the instrument was constructed in numerous types which varied in size, sound and number of pipes.

Little by little instruments began to appear in which the hydraulic mechanism was replaced by bellows. By the early third century AD, the two types must have been almost equally represented. After the late fifth century AD, with the collapse of the Western Empire beneath the barbarian invasions, the organ disappeared in Western Europe. It lived on in the East, however, in the Byzantine Empire, whose capital was now Constantinolpe. By this time, the bellows organ had prevailed. At the Imperial court in Constantinople, the organ was a symbol of prestige, playing music at public festivals and during the visit of foreign quests, in order to impress them. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos (912-959) formally established the organ in court protocol and decreed that it was to play at parades and during specific ceremonies in the Great Palace and the Hippodrome. In 757, the Emperor Constantine II Copronymos sent an organ as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks and father of Charlemange. Over time, the organ became part of the musical tradition of the West, was accepted by the Catholic Church, and developed into the church organ familiar to us today. In Byzantium, it remained in use but was confined to the Imperial Palace. After the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, it disappeared.

A DAY AT THE ARENA

Gladiatorial games began with an elaborate procession that included the combatants and was led by the sponsor of the games, the editor; in Rome during the imperial period, this usually was the emperor, and in the provinces it was a high-ranking magistrate. The parade and subsequent events were often accompanied by music; the mosaic at right depicts a water organ and the curved horn (cornu). The morning's events might begin with mock fights such as this contest. These would be followed by animal displays, sometimes featuring trained animals that performed tricks, but more often staged as hunts (venationes) in which increasingly exotic animals were pitted against each other or hunted and killed by bestiarii.

The hydraulis or hydraulic organ was the first keyboard instrument in the history of world music and the ancestor of the later church organ. It consisted or one or more sets of metal pipes of different sizes which were supplied with air at constant pressure by a hydraulic mechanical device and activated, so as to produce sound, by special levers or keys. The hydraulis was a simple but ingenious structure which demonstrates the high level of technological thought which had been developed in antiquity.

The Roman Hydraulis was constructed with ten bronze pipes, but the instrument had no military applications. The hydraulis spread very rapidly through the Hellenistic and later the Roman world, where it provided musical accompaniment for games in the forum and was the favorite instrument of Emperors such as Nero. Ancient references to the hydraulis and the many depictions of it on coins, vases and stone pillars which have come down to us reveal that the instrument was constructed in numerous types which varied in size and number of pipes. Little by little, the hydraulic mechanism was replaced by bellows and the hydraulis joined the family of wind instruments. During the first centuries of the Christian era, but after the barbarian invasions of Europe, the Hydraulis disappeared from the western part of what had been the Roman Empire, although in its blower-powered form it continued to exist in Byzantium. There is no evidence of hydraulically -powered instruments in Byzantium. In the Imperial court at Constantinople, the organ was a symbol of prestige and it played music during the visits of foreign guests in order to impress them. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos (tenth century) formally established the organ in court protocol, and decreed that it was to play during specific ceremonies in the Great Palace and the Hippodrome. The hydraulis appears to have been at first a curiosity, but it became an instrument used in the competitions that characterized both Greek and Roman cultural life. As the largest, most highly developed - - even the most complicated musical instrument in use, the hydraulis held a position in the ancient world that the organ would maintain in modern times to the end of the twentieth century.

waterorgan and horn Hydraulis and Cornucine

Music and Roman Religions

The gradual decline of Rome after 200 C.E.. took place as the popularity of Christianity was increasing. The emperor Constantine I, who ruled from 306 to 337 C.E., adopted Christianity and legalized it for the first time in the Roman Empire. Rome had for centuries exerted a peaceful and unifying influence on Europe but that was gradually disintegrating as barbarians increasingly threatened the security of the empire. When the Roman empire was permanently divided in 395 C.E.., Christianity became the only major cultural force unifying the still vital eastern empire in Byzantium with the rapidly dissolving western empire in Europe. By the time the last Roman emperor, the young Romulus Augustulus, was finally deposed in 476, the papacy had established itself in Rome and was asserting jurisdiction over the Christian church. The music of the Christian church was for centuries the only cultivated art music in existence in Europe. Early Christian music, largely monophonic chant influenced by the Jewish cantorial tradition, was entirely vocal as the church attempted to purge the masses of the instrumental music associated with competing religions. Latin translations by Boethius (circa 480-524) and Cassiodorus (circa 490-585C.E.) of Greek literature on music theory also contributed to the theoretical foundations of early Christian chant. It is from these origins that the history of western art music properly begins. Music of Roman religious traditions was carried out by Roman priests employed by the State. Choirs were used at theatrical performances as well as popular for processions involving the military or civic activities.