In China, the concept of gender difference appears visually in the male/female aspects of the yin/yang Taoist symbol.
This is also the symbol used in Tai Chi movements. The light swirl on the left represents the Yang: the active, aggressive male; the dark swirl  within the symbol’s circle is the passive, yielding, feminine yin.  Neither principle is considered subordinate to the other; each complements the other and is capable of expressing both female and male characteristics. Within Taoism, then, women were able to seek spiritual fulfillment beyond their family duties. In times past, some Chinese women joined convents and became adept in the ways of the Tao, others gathered with men to discuss Chinese philosophy and religion. 

                                                                                     Yin-Yang (masculine and feminine)

Origins of the Yin-Yang or Tai Chi Symbol

When observing the cycle of the Sun, ancient Chinese simply used an eight foot pole posted at right angles to the ground and recorded positions of the Sun's shadow. They placed the length of a year to be  around 365.25 days.
They divided  the year's cycle into 24 Segments, including the Vernal Equinox, Autumnal Equinox, Summer Solstice and Winter Solstice, using the sunrise and Dipper positions. They used six concentric circles, marked the 24-Segment points, divided the circles into 24 sectors and recorded the length of shadow every day. The shortest shadow is found on the day of Summer Solstice. The longest shadow is found on the day of Winter Solstice. After connecting each lines and dimming Yin Part from Summer Solstice to Winter Solstice, the Sun chart looks like this. Look familiar?

In Yin-yang theory the universe is run by a single principle called theTao, or Great Ultimate. The Tao is divided into two opposing principles referred to as yin and yang. All the opposites a person perceives in the universe can be reduced to one of the yin-uang  forces. The yin and yang accomplish changes in the universe through the five material agents, or
wu hsing , which both produce one another and overcome one another. All change in the universe can be explained by the workings of yin and yang and the progress of the five material agents as they either produce one another or overcome one another. Yin-yang and the five agents are universal explanatory principles: all phenomena can be understood using yin-yang and the five agents: the movements of the stars, the workings of the body, the nature of foods, the qualities of music, the ethical qualities of humans, the progress of time, the operations of government, and even the nature of historical change. All things follow this order so that all things can be related to one another in some way.

Yang : principles of maleness, the sun, creation, heat, light, Heaven, dominance, etc.

Yin : principles of femaleness, the moon, completion, cold, darkness, material forms, submission, etc.

As opposites, yin and yang produce each other: Heaven creates the ideas of things under yang, the earth produces their material forms under yin, and vice versa; creation occurs under the principle of yang, the completion of the created thing occurs under yin, and vice versa, and so on. This production of yin from yang and yang from yin occurs cyclically and constantly, so that no one principle continually dominates the other or determines the other. All opposites that one experiences: health and sickness, wealth and poverty, power and submission, can be explained in reference to the temporary dominance of one principle over the other. Since no one principle dominates eternally means that all conditions are subject to change into their opposites. So, Yin and Yang are cyclical in nature. This means  that all phenomena change into their opposites in an eternal cycle of reversal. Second, since the one principle produces the other, all phenomena have within them the seeds of their opposite state, that is, sickness has the seeds of health, health contains the seeds of sickness, wealth contains the seeds of poverty, etc. Third, even though an opposite may not be seen to be present, since one principle produces the other, no phenomenon is completely devoid of its opposite state. One is never really healthy since health contains the principle of its opposite, sickness. Taoists call this "presence in absence."

Yin and Yang operate through the physical mechanism of "the five material agents" or wu-hsing.  The five material agents are wood-fire-earth-metal-water and are grouped either in the order by which they produce one another (wood gives rise to fire, fire gives rise to earth, earth gives rise to metal, metal gives rise to water, water gives rise to earth, etc.) or the order by which they are conquered by one another: fire is conquered by water, water is conquered by earth, earth is conquered by wood, wood is conquered by metal, and metal is conquered by fire, etc. Each of these orders can be used to explain the progression of change in just about everything. When the modern western physicist talks about the unification of the five forces (electromagnetic force, strong force, weak force, gravity, color force), that person is not conceiving these five forces as spilling into or conquering one another; this physicist would consider it absurd to apply any of these forces to anything other than mechanical or atomic physics. The five agents, however, is a metaphysical explanation of the progression of change that is meant to be applied to every phenomenon one encounters in this changing universe: time, seasons, biology, cycles, music, politics, ethics, and history.

Around 3,400 years ago, when European music was just experiencing its first rustlings of life, a complete system of musical theory and the evolution of sophisticated musical instruments began appearing in Shang Dynasty China,
owing largely to the orthodox ritual music advocated by the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius. By the Han Dynasty  (206 BCE. - 220 CE), the Imperial court set up a  a State run Music Bureau organized to collect and editing ancient Chinese tunes and folk songs.

Chinese music is as old as Chinese civilization. Instruments excavated from sites of the Shang dynasty (circa 1766-c. 1027 BC) include stone chimes, bronze bells, panpipes, and the sheng.  In the Chou dynasty (circa 1027-256 BC) music was one of the four subjects that the sons of noblemen and princes were required to study, and the office of music at one time comprised more than 1400 people. Although much of the repertoire has been lost, some old Chinese ritual music (yayue) is preserved in manuscripts. During the Ch'in dynasty (221-206 BC) music was denounced as a wasteful pastime; almost all musical books, instruments, and manuscripts were ordered destroyed. Despite this severe setback Chinese music experienced a renaissance during the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 CE), when a special bureau of music was established to take charge of ceremonial music. During the reign of Ming-Ti,  the Han palace had three orchestras comprising in all 829 performers. One orchestra was used for religious ceremonies, another for royal archery contests, and the third for entertaining the royal banquets and harem.

Painting on the wall of an ancient Emperor's tomb

Organized groups of Mongoloid peoples have occupied mainland China since at least 3000 BCE. By the time of the first verified Chinese dynasty, the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BCE), the Chinese were already using a writing system related directly to current Chinese writing. Very early, then, the Chinese developed a respect for tradition and the written word, as evidenced in the thousands of volumes of Chinese literature written over many centuries. Still today, modern China is a mixture of many ethnic groups, dialects, and traditions, although the Han people still comprise over 90% of the current population. Chinese legend has it that in 2697 BCE, a Chinese musician named Ling Lun was sent by the Emperor to the western mountains to cut bamboo pipes (called lu's) from which fundamental pitches of music would be derived. Acoustical theory in China also developed the metaphysical notion about the relationship between music and the Cosmos. In ancient Chinese belief, music could influence both cosmic and social order, and yet music could be influenced by philosophy and local politics. The tuning of the twelve lu's was done by calculating cycles of fifths (the musical distance from A-B-C-D-E). The exhaustive location of all possible pitches by mathematical calculation and by performing music in tonalities appropriate to the seasonal cycles could bring peace and prosperity to the dynasty. This cyclical method of pitch calculation was consistent with the cyclical nature of dynastic rule in China.

There is further evidence of early music activity in China. Somewhere between 1600-1066 BCE there is archaeological evidence of pottery ocarinas (whistle flutes) and stone chimes. By 1027 BCE there were written records of tuned sets of bronze bells. By the 3rd century (BCE) the tuning of court instruments was set to standard pitched pipes held by the imperial court. By 239 BCE, there was a predetermined set of mathematical ratios for musical intervals in the Chinese scale system. At about the same time there were classes of instruments organized and classified according to the material they were made from - metal., stone, silk, bamboo, gourd, pottery, leather, and wood. Each category was associated with the one of the four seasons, the twelve months, the five cardinal points and other metaphysical associations, which led to mathematical calculations to explain acoustical principles.     

Though remarkable for its stability, the music of China has not been stagnant and has all the variety and richness to be expected in the art of a vast, ancient and populous land. The importance of Chinese music extends beyond China's national borders. The presence of Chinese musical instruments, as well as repertoire and style characteristics, is conspicuous in Korea, Japan, and throughout Southeast Asia.

Chinese philosophy has also been  connected with politics and morality and has assumed most of the functions
of religion in China.   The Chinese put emphasis on social and moral reality as most fundamental, as opposed
to Buddhist metaphysical reality and knowledge as real.. Likewise, the Theory of the Five Agencies is essential
to Chinese understanding of the structure of the universe, rather than it=s origin. The Chinese do not follow a
theory based upon an all powerful god as the source of all creation and being . Rather, the theory was an
attempt to explain the functions of nature by appeal to inner principles or powers, and not some external force
(i.e. gods or  God). All the characteristics and tendencies of nature are the result of various combinations
of the five agencies. The five powers of the universe that control the functioning of nature are symbolically
represented by wood, fire. metal, water, and earth. The combination of these powers determine the workings
of the universe. For example. In Springtime, the power represented by wood is dominant. When the
power of fire dominates, it is summer, Fall represents the ascendency  of metal, and winter results
when water is dominant. Earth is dominant in late Summer. We also find (later in this document) that the five
elements are organizational principles for categorizing Chinese musical instruments.

Chinese Confucianism taught that the origins of music in China were as old as the beginnings of Chinese
civilization, that music was founded by ancient Chinese Emperors, it served the function of pleasing ancestors,
it affected their quality of government, informed the individual development of character, and if properly
performed created order between Heaven and Earth. Aspects of music, including the development of a formal
system of music theory, standardized tuning of instruments, and the development of an aesthetic philosophy
linking music to the Cosmos, governed the direction of music in China for thousands of years.  Chinese legend
has it that in 2697 BCE, a man named Ling Lun, was sent by the Emperor to the western mountains of
China to cut bamboo pipes (lu's) from which fundamental pitches of Chinese music would be derived.
Acoustical theory in China also developed the metaphysical notion about the relationship between
music and the cosmos.  At this same time the Chinese were already using a writing system related directly
to that of their descendants. Very early the Chinese developed a respect for the written word, as
evidenced in the thousands of volumes of literature

Music Theory and Chinese Cosmology
 

Writings on Chinese music theory mainly concern the theory of Court and traditional Art Music of China, in which extra-musical concepts relating music to cosmology, philosophy, and politics played dominant roles in Chinese history. Chinese legend states that in 2697 B.C., Ling Lun was sent by Emperor Huang-ti to the western mountains to cut bamboo pipes (Lu=s) from which the fundamental pitches of Chinese music would be derived. A cyclical method of tuning (by fifths, on a piano keyboard this would be C-G-D-A-E) was consistent with Chinese views of cycles of dynasties, seasons, and other recurrent patterns in life. The use of this Pentatonic, or five-toned scale system connected music to other important concepts (i.e. Five Cardinal Points or directions, the five basis elements, the five known planets, the five continents, the five primary colors, and the five senses. The use of a five tone scale (Pentatonic)  held other symbolic attributes: The primary tone (Kung) was associated with the Emperor, the  Shang tone was associated with the Minister, the Chich tone  with the State, the Chaio tone with the People, and the Yu tone  with important Chinese objects.  Acoustical theory in China also developed the metaphysical notion about the relationship between music and the Cosmos. There is further evidence of early music activity in China. Somewhere between 1600-1066 B.C.E. there is archaeological evidence of pottery ocarinas and stone chimes. By 1027 B.C.E. there were written records of tuned sets of bronze bells. By the 3rd century (B.C.E.) the tuning of court instruments was set to standard pitched pipes held by the imperial court.  By 239 B.C.E., there was a predetermined set of mathematical ratios for musical intervals in the Chinese scale system. At about the same time there were  classes of instruments organized and classified according to the material they were made from - metal., stone, silk, bamboo, gourd, pottery, leather, and wood. Each category was associated with the one of the four seasons, the twelve months, the five cardinal points and other metaphysical associations, which led to mathematical calculations to explain acoustical principles.

During the Tang dynasty (618-906) Chinese secular music (suyue) reached its peak. Emperor T'ai-Tsunghad ten different orchestras, eight of which were made up of members of various foreign tribes; all the royal performers and dancers appeared in their native costumes. The imperial court also had a huge outdoor band of nearly 1400 performers. Portions of Tang music are preserved in Japanese court music, or gagaku.

Among the many genres of Chinese music is a form of music drama often called Chinese opera. Formerly these operas were based on old tales of heroes and the supernatural. Today the stories often deal with heroes of the Communist revolution or with great historical events of the recent past. The first fully developed form of Chinese opera, called northern drama, or beiqu (pei ch'ü), emerged during the Yüan dynasty (1279-1368). During the Ming (1368-1644) and Ch'ing (1644-1912) dynasties, southern drama, also called xiwen (hsi wen), flourished and underwent much stylistic development. The variety of Chinese opera known as Peking opera, jingxi (ching hsi), is the most familiar in the West. It developed in the 19th century as a synthesis of earlier provincial forms.

During the first half of the 20th century Chinese music was considerably influenced by the music of the West. Three major schools of thought arose in response to this influence. The first school aimed at reviving the old thousand-piece orchestras that once delighted ancient princes and sages and resisted the influence of Western music. The second school concerned itself almost exclusively with Western music. The last school of Chinese music took great pride in traditional Chinese musical culture but did not hesitate to apply it to Western techniques of composition and performance.

During the 1950s Western influence penetrated Chinese music to an unprecedented extent. The Chinese Communist regime, established in 1949, gave special prominence to Russian music. Whether China can assimilate Western influence and still maintain a fundamentally Chinese musical culture remains an unanswered question, but the evidence seems to indicate that a synthesis will eventually develop. In contemporary China notable facilities exist for the training of musicians in both Chinese and Western styles. Many symphonic orchestras and Chinese-style instrumental ensembles exist, and large choral groups are commonly found in large cities, universities, and factories. Both Chinese and Western instruments are manufactured in large quantities and are used in government-maintained schools and conservatories throughout the country.

The ancient Chinese philosopher, Confucius (551-479 BCE.) regarded music as one of the six basic skills of a learned person. Through learning music, one develops a sensitive and disciplined personality. This ancient philosophy of Confucius has been one of the guiding principles of Chinese music since it's origins in antiquity.  Living as he did in the second half of the Zhou dynasty, when central government had degenerated in China and intrigue and vice were rampant, Confucius deplored the contemporary disorder and lack of moral standards.  He came to believe that the only remedy was to convert people once more to the principles and precepts of the sages of antiquity.  He therefore lectured to his pupils on the ancient classics of Chinese literature.  He also stressed the importance of music, for the Chinese music of this time had ceremonial and religious functions important in state functions and worship.  He taught the great value of the power of example.  Rulers, he said, can be great only if they themselves lead exemplary lives, and were they willing to be guided by moral principles, their states would inevitably attract citizens and become prosperous and happy.  The entire teaching of Confucius was practical and ethical, rather than religious. He claimed to be a restorer of ancient morality and held that proper outward acts based on the five virtues of kindness, uprightness, decorum, wisdom, and faithfulness constitute the whole of human duty.   Reverence for parents, living and dead, was one of his key concepts.  His view of government was paternalistic, and he enjoined all individuals to observe carefully their duties towards the state.   In subsequent centuries his teachings exerted a powerful influence on Chinese philosophy and the history of China

Confucian and Taoist Thought and Practice

Confucius had one overwhelming message: if we are to achieve a state of orderliness and peace, we need to return to traditional values of virtue. These values are based entirely on one concept: jen , which is best translated as "humaneness," but can also mean "humanity," "benevolence," "goodness," or "virtue." This humaneness is a relatively strange concept to Western eyes, because it is not primarily a practicable virtue. Rather, the job of the "gentleman," ch'ün tzu , was to concentrate on the highest concepts of behavior even when this is impractical or foolish. Like his contemporaries, Confucius believed that the human order in some way reflected the divine order, or the patterns of heaven. More than anything, according to Confucius, the ancients understood the order and hierarchy of heaven and earth; as a result, Confucius established the Chinese past as an infallible model for the present.

What is incumbent on individual people is to determine the right pattern to live and govern by; this can be achieved by studying the sage-kings and their mode of life and government and by following rituals scrupulously, for the pattern of heaven is most explicitly inscribed on the various rituals, li , prescribed for the conduct of everyday life. Neglecting ritual, or doing rituals incorrectly, demonstrated a moral anarchy or disorder of the most egregious kind. These heavenly patterns were also inscribed in the patterns of music and dance, yüeh , so that order in this life could be attained by understanding and practicing the order of traditional and solemn music and dance. Music and dance are talked about constantly in the Confucian writings. Why? Because traditional music and dance perfectly embody the humaneness and wisdom of their composers, who understood perfectly the order of the world and heaven; one can create within oneself this wisdom by properly performing this music and dance.

While Chinese thought and practice is highly influenced by Confucian ideals, Chinese civilization and culture also rests upon a philosophical foundation shaped by Taoism, and Buddhism.  Taoism is almost entirely different from Confucianism, but not contradictory. It ranges over entirely different concerns, so that it is common for individuals, philosophers, Chinese novels or films, etc., to be both Confucianist and Taoist. The Taoist has no concern for affairs of the state, for mundane or quotidian matters of administration, or for elaborate ritual; rather Taoism encourages avoiding public duty in order to search for a vision of the transcendental world of the spirit.   Taoism is based on the idea that behind all material things and all the change in the world lies one fundamental, universal principle: the Way or Tao. This principle gives rise to all existence and governs everything, all change and all life. Behind the bewildering multiplicity and contradictions of the world lies a single unity, the Tao. The purpose of human life, then, is to live life according to the Tao, which requires passivity, calm, non-striving (wu wei ), humility, and lack of planning, for to plan is to go against the Tao. The text of Lao Tzu is primarily concerned with portraying a model of human life lived by the Tao; later writers will stress more mystical and magical aspects. But Lao Tzu was, like Confucius, Mo Tzu, and Mencius, also concerned with the nature of government; he believed unquestioningly in the idea that a government could also exist in accordance with the Tao. What would such a government look like? It would not wage war, it would not be complex, it would not interfere in people's lives, it would not wallow in luxury and wealth, and, ideally, it would be inactive, serving mainly as a guide rather than as a governor.

Ancient Chinese thinkers were convinced that through the realization of their human potential, man could find harmony and fulfillment in their relations with one another and with nature.  Merged together, the philosophies of Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism) stress the importance of self transformation in human life:  preserving and cultivating one=s life, and moving toward human perfection and human virtue.  Thus, human life is primary, the world of things is secondary.  Human virtue is considered to be the key to harmony and peace in the family and in the community.  The means of accomplishing this harmony accounts for the differences between different schools of thought and practice. Taoist insight stressed following the inner way, the Tao of nature. Confucianism insight was that perfection can be realized by cultivating human nature or Jen,  and the social virtues. Buddhist insight was that perfection can be realized through meditative insight in to the mind.  Within Chinese music, for example, there is a Confucian-based aesthetic related to the positive and negative in music. Positive music, or shi yin,  means  A proper sound implies that to be appropriate, good music must be both harmonious and promote peacefulness in the listener. This implies that in ancient times music was used as an educational tool capable of inspiring virtue and appropriate attitudes.  On the other hand, chi yue, meaning " negative or extravagant music" demonstrated inappropriate attributes of loudness and wanton noisiness, a stimulant for excessive and licentious behavior.

For several thousand years Chinese culture was dominated by the teachings of the philosopher Confucius, who conceived of music in the highest sense as a means of calming the passions and of dispelling unrest and lust, rather than as a form of amusement. The ancient Chinese belief that music is meant not to amuse but to purify one's thoughts finds particular expression in the cult of the qin (ch'in), a long zither possessing a repertory calling for great subtlety and refinement in performance and still popular among a small circle of scholar-musicians. A famous qin scholar once said, “Though the qin player's body be in a gallery or in a hall, his mind should dwell with the forests and streams.”

Also, traditionally the Chinese have believed that sound influences the harmony of the universe. Significantly, one of the most important duties of the first emperor of each new dynasty was to search out and establish that dynasty's true standard of pitch. A result of this philosophical orientation was that until quite recently the Chinese theoretically opposed music performed solely for entertainment; accordingly, musical entertainers were relegated to an extremely low social status.

Ancient Chinese legends established a doctrine, eventually known as Confucianism, which taught that the origins of music in China were as old as the beginnings of Chinese civilization. Based on Confucian belief, music was founded by the first Chinese Emperors. Music served the function of pleasing the ancestors, music affected their quality of government, music informed the individual development of character, and if properly performed, music created order between Heaven and Earth. Aspects of music, including the development of a formal system of music theory, standardized tuning of instruments, and the development of an aesthetic philosophy linking music to the Cosmos, governed the direction of music in China for thousands of years.

The ethical, philosophical, and political basis of Chinese government and civilization holds strongly to the beliefs and practices of Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism. The Confucian Way, more of a social doctrine than a religion, has permeated Chinese life (and Chinese music) well into the Twentieth century. It's teachings held, among other things, that the "correct" performance of music could produce a peaceful political State and individuals that are virtuous. Ethics were the basis for good government and education of the people, aided by the correct use of music and correct practices of rituals, could inculcate ethical attitudes among the people. This concept of music used as a means for political and/or spiritual enlightenment has existed throughout history, as we have already seen in this course.

The literary cornerstone of Confucian tradition was the Wu Ching (The Five Chinese Classics). These five books cover human activities for which the ancient Chinese hoped would please their ancestors, whom they believed to have control over individual human fortunes. By satisfying the ancestors with correct performances of "Li" (rites) and "Ya-yeah" (ritual music). The ancient Chinese expected favorable responses to their petitions concerning daily life, harvests, and the outcomes of battles.  Here is an excerpt from the fourth Book of Classics (1765-1123 B.C.) which addresses music's relationship to natural order and to good government:

"Music is the Harmony of Heaven and Earth, rites are their order.
Through Harmony all things are transformed, through Order all are distinguished.
Music arises from Heaven, rites are patterned after Earth.
Therefore the sage creates music in response to Heaven and sets up rites to match Earth.
When music and rites are fully realized, Heaven and Earth function in perfect order."

                                                                                                           Book of Classics, Book Four

The Temple of Heavens (Beijing)

In modern China the use of music to achieve "Tao" (Enlightenment) became an extension of this earlier Confucian concept.
For example, how might we interpret the words of former Chinese President Chiang Kai-Shek?:

"Good music can transform temperament, revive spirit, ease hard labor and
strengthen willpower so that man's living is made more harmonious and
pleasant and his tasks become better and by that, high character in every
individual and right social custom are subtly cultivated. So it's importance
is not only to the moral cultivation of each individual, but also can affect
the prosperity and recession of a nation."

                                                                              President Chiang Kai-Shek:

Aesthetic Values in Chinese Music

Melody and tone color are prominent expressive features of Chinese music, and great emphasis is given to the proper articulation and inflection of each musical tone.  In Chinese music, a single tone is of greater significance than melody; for the tone is an important attribute of the substance that produces it. Hence, musical instruments are seperated into eight classes according to the materials from which they are made-gourd (sheng); bamboo (panpipes); wood (chu, a trough shaped percussion instrument); silk ( a variety of zithers with silk strings); clay (globular flutes); metal (bells); stone (stone chimes); and skin (drums). the failure of adynasty was often ascribed to the dynasty's inability to find the proper "hunag chung" (proper tone or pitch).
 

Most Chinese music is based on the five-tone pentatonic, scale, but the seven-tone, or heptatonic, scale, is also used, often
as an expansion of a basically pentatonic core. The pentatonic scale was much used in older music. The heptatonic scale is often encountered in northern Chinese folk music.  Chinese melody is ordinarily based on a 5-tone (pentatonic) scale, although additional pitches can be introduced.  Expressiveness, however, is often less a function of melodic patterns than of the individual note, which carries cosmological connotations. This emphasis on the single tone raises timbre to a position of enormous importance, and Chinese musicians have employed with immense skill the range of coloristic possibilities afforded by their instruments and voices.

For the Chinese, the aesthetics of music and all other arts have traditionally concerned the pleasurable contemplation of value as embodied in and expressed through the individual experience of Art. However, the Chinese notion of art resides not exclusively in the art object itself, but takes shape as one identifies the individual's identification of self with the continuum of being and existence (known as Tao). Music is the first subject of Chinese aesthetics because, of all art forms, it was considered to be the most direct manifestation of the universal life force known as Qi (Chi). Chinese writings define music as moving, patterned sound, and sound (according to the Chinese) is the ground for Being, since all things resonate in an eternally flowing current of Sound. This "sound current", also characterized as the breath (Qi) or "energy of life" pervades the Universe as a spirit. It's vitality resonates as audible (perceived) or inaudible (unperceived or silent) Sound. Sound involves movement, and movement creates change, bringing with it a rhythmic exchange between "tension" and "release". Silence, on the other hand, with it's apparent stillness and quietude, suggests the other side of change (continuity and stability).

Chinese musical instruments traditionally have been classified according to the materials used in their construction, namely, metal, stone, silk, bamboo, gourd, clay, skin, and wood. Of these, the stone and wood instruments are obsolete. The older instruments include long zithers; flutes; panpipes; the sheng, or mouth organ; and percussion instruments, such as clappers, drums, and gongs. Of later origin are various lutes and fiddles, introduced to China from Central Asia.

The QIN, a Musical Instrument of a Confucian Scholar

             The Chinese Qin is  a six foot long stringed zither similar in shape to the Japanese Koto has had a longtime historical association with Confucian sages, scholars and poets.  The Qin was first mentioned in the Shujing (Book of History). By 300 BCE it was expected that any man who was a scholar and a gentleman would be required to learn to play the Qin. Much later, during the Song Dynasty (960-1027 CE) playing the Qin was seen as a act of contemplation, self purification, and self regulation; hence, it should be played in private, amidst charming scenery such as under pine trees or beside running creeks, in the privacy of one=s garden, or in the cloister of one=s library with incense burning.  The Qin vogue reached it=s height during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).  While much of Chinese tradition is written down, in these early times the Importance of oral transmission, and the realization and interpretation by the musician was an important part of the mystique of the Qin. 

Listen to this musical example of the Qin:

Writings on Chinese music theory mainly concern the theory of Court and traditional Art Music of China, in which extra-musical concepts relating music to cosmology, philosophy, and politics played dominant roles in Chinese history. Chinese legend states that in 2697 B.C., Ling Lun was sent by Emperor Huang-ti to the western mountains to cut bamboo pipes (called Lu's, in honor of Ling Lun) from which the fundamental pitches of Chinese music would be derived. A cyclical method of tuning by fifths emerged from this action. The musical tones of C-G-D-A-E (each tone is five steps apart, i.e.CDEFG-GABCD-etc.) were consistent with Chinese views of cycles of dynasties, seasons, and other recurrent patterns in life. The use of this pentatonic, or five-toned scale system connected music to other important concepts (i.e. Five Cardinal Points or directions, the five basis elements, the five known planets, the five continents, the five primary colors, and the five senses. The use of a five tone scale held other symbolic attributes: The primary tone (Kung) was associated with the Emperor, the tone (Shang) was associated with the Minister, the tone (Chih) with the State, the tone (Chaio) with the People, and the tone (Yu) with important Chinese objects.

 The Chinese love their musical dramas. the Chinese word "Jingju", means "a theater of the capital".  Peking (Beijing) Opera is one of more than three hundred varieties of traditional Chinese musical drama, each identified with a region or province of China. Of all these, Beijing is the most widely performed, and indeed, comes closest to being a national theater for China. Each regional style uses a different vocal repertoire, melody pool, instruments, and systems of stylized speech & gestures that often carry symbolic meaning known to the true follower of each tradition.  Speech and singing styles are differentiated by intonation, rhythmic patterns, language, syntactic organization, and type of instrumental punctuation used. 

Nevertheless, there are many stock conventions and symbolism in Beijing opera, just as there are in European opera. For example, in European opera, different voice types (i.e. Tenor, Baritone) are regularly associated with specific character types (i.e. Romantic tenors often play young, amorous males). The lower female voice (i.e. Contralto) frequently plays a character who conspires against the male and female protagonists (tenor and soprano). In Beijing opera, young men are often of romantic and dreamy inclinations, and will most often sing in the high vocal register known as falsetto. Older, bearded male characters in Chinese opera, who may be associated with loyalty and trust, often sing in the high baritone register. Chinese warrior characters tend to sing with a forced, throaty voice.  Jing, or painted face roles of male characters require aloud, hoarse manner of singing in a asstyle that takes many years of training and practice to perform correctly.

Beijing or Peking Opera, Cantonese opera, and K'un-ch'u are three major regional styles that makeup most of Chinese opera tradition today. There are more than 300 theatrical styles (involving music) found in the Peoples Republic of China today. Each uses a different vocal repertoire, melody pool, instruments, and systems of stylized speech & gestures that often carry symbolic meaning (known to the true follower of each tradition --sound familiar?). Speech and singing styles are differentiated by intonation, rhythmic patterns, language, syntactic organization, and type of instrumental punctuation used. We will examine Peking Opera, the most common tradition still in use today. The repertoire of Peking Opera emphasizes the singing (several types of Arias used) of a basic stock of set arias, the use of heightened speaking pitch (stylized), dance, pantomime, martial arts, and acrobatic displays for the entertainment of Chinese audiences. The many costumes, gestures, facial painting, and movements of actors often have specific symbolic meaning to knowledgeable viewers. For example, there are more than twenty types of beards, and nearly forth methods of stroking the beard (symbolically telling about character, motivation. Peking Opera uses a small orchestra comprised of bowed and plucked strings, and many percussion (gongs, cymbals, and drums) instruments:

Musical Instruments in Chinese opera

Strings Erh-hu (Spike Fiddle), Yeuh-ch'in(moon Shaped), Pi'pa(lute), Cheng (Zither)
Percussion Cymbals, Gongs, Wood Blocks
Winds Ti-tzu (Flute), Sona (oboe-like w/reed)

Chinese Opera Roles

      Males Mature & Virtuous  Sheng: Males - Mature and Virtuous

Military - Martial Arts

Young Males

Painted Face Roles - Also called "ching", meaning "ornamentation". The painted face tradition has been used in Chinese opera for more than 600 years, and has it's origins in the oral tradition of regional Chinese theatre.The pattern of colors used in the makeup reflect specific character types and the background of a specific character (i.e. age, disposition, tendencies). In clothing, the colors blue, yellow, red, white or black often represent virtue in a character. We in the West might compare this to our Western use of white and black to depict tendencies toward "good" or "evil" in characters (operas, plays, musicals, movies).

  Old Ladies - Stern, Traditional

Patterns & Color of Makeup Reflects Character Types or the Background of a Character, as Well as Age and Disposition of the Character. In the Symbolism of Painted Faces, the Color Symbolism Is Different from Colors used for Costumes. For example, in Clothing-blue, White, Yellow, Red and Black Often Represent Virtue in a Character. The Painted Face Tradition Has Been Used for over 600 Years, and has its origins in the oral traditions of regional theater in China.

Color Symbolism in Chinese Opera (Are there counterparts in American and European opera?)

               The repertoire of Peking Opera emphasizes the singing (several types of Arias used) of a basic stock of set arias, the use of heightened speaking pitch (stylized), dance, pantomime, martial arts, and acrobatic displays for the entertainment of Chinese audiences. The many costumes, gestures, facial painting, and movements of actors often have specific symbolic meaning to knowledgeable viewers. For example, there are more than twenty types of beards, and nearly forth methods of stroking the beard (symbolically telling about character, motivation. Peking Opera uses a small orchestra comprised of bowed and plucked strings, and many percussion (gongs, cymbals, and drums) instruments: