Japanese Traditional Music and Japanese Theatre 

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Introduction

  Japan is the most Westernized country in all of Asia, and yet the Japanese are known as being great guardians of tradition.  Deeply affected by the cultural and spiritual teachings of Buddhism, many Japanese artistic traditions are firmly rooted and preserved. And yet,  in Japan, in all Asian countries, there is a declining interest  among young Japanese in traditional culture.  The threat of modernity is real, but the sense of tradition in Japan is so strong that their traditional music will somehow survive.

Japanese Aesthetic Principles

   Within the context of Japanese thought, it is through religion and the arts (i.e. calligraphy, painting, poetry, literature, music, dance, etc.) that the individual finds a way of "coming to experience". An art form such as painting does not theorize about things, but does give the beholder new ideas to see things in new ways, as well as the immediacy of the notion of 'as they are'. In Buddhist art, for example, the very act or process of drawing or painting is sacred in itself.- a technique of contemplation. Worship and mysticism blend into one act.

The performance of Japanese music has traditionally been of a meditative or spiritual character, emphasizing "Qi' or "chi" (i.e. a spiritual force within the body), a force also found in the the tea ceremony, calligraphy, or martial arts. Japanese styles of performance can be highly ritualized, as much as the music itself. Even the pacing or tempo of Japanese music can be slow, almost reflecting a meditative sensibility to it.  The musician works on an inner strength ( "Qi" ) in mastering of his or her instrument, more than simply perfecting a technique of some sort and providing entertainment.  Audiences are looking for this self-mastery in musicians.  For this reason, among many, this music has become highly ritualized.  Musicians must show this spiritual self-mastery in their performance and composure. 

According to Japanese and Chinese belief Qi fills the body at every level and is said to be coursing through the body along intangible lines of energy known as meridians. Our thoughts, emotions, food, breath and exercise, the weather seasons and even times of the day are believed to influence the way Qi responds within the body. According to traditional Chinese medicine human Qi is part of the "Three treasures", Jing (essence), Qi (energy) and Shen (spirit) that constitute the life force and vitality of human beings. When these energies are stimulated and blended correctly through life style, meditation and various exercises the result is health, longevity and harmony with nature.

Traditional Japanese music uses concrete elements which serve to represent natural sounds and the sounds of life.  Contrary to Western music, the musician's self-expression is minimized through the ritualistic and contemplative use of these concrete sounds and effects.  Many Westerners feel there is not much emotion in Japanese music.  This important distinction in their aesthetic of music is important for Westerners to understand, and for the appreciation of Japanese traditional music.

Although composers were signing their works during the Nara period (553-794 AD), much earlier than the Europeans, composers and writers alike did not consider they had intellectual and individual rights over their work (though this has changed since the 20th century following Western influences).  There are apparently two reasons for this.  First, music, as well as theatre and poetry, are based on strict forms and patterns of composition, which are strictly followed.  The concept of individual rights, thus, did not apply in this context.  The second reason is that for the Japanese mind, the social and collective ego has precedence over the individual ego .  So, when a musician writes a new musical work, it is done in the spirit of the school of which he or she belongs, and it is considered part of the repertoire of that school first and foremost.  In this sense, tradition and the tradition of the school one belongs to have precedence over one's individuality.  In this line of thought it is even accepted for another musician, member of a school or not, to adapt and modify a piece from another musician according to the style of their own school.  Many pieces have different versions according to a musician's or a school's style.

For Japanese, the basic principle governing the universe is not God or man, but time - a time which is a primordial flowing energy, through which everything evolves and becomes .  The concept of naru, meaning becoming, is very important in Japanese traditional music and all other Japanese forms of art.  It is even considered a natural law.  All art evolves through its own temporal movement and flow.  This includes as well the movement of the painter or the sculptor in creating their works, the musician performing a piece of music, a poet reciting a poem or an actor performing in a play.

   One of the most important aesthetic principle in Japanese music follows from this concept of naru.  This principle is called jo-ha-kyû, which means roughly introduction, development and conclusion.  It is a temporal aesthetic principle on which music is based, from a single note to entire pieces.  It regulates the flow of time in a piece of music so that all notes, words and parts flow flawlessly between each other.  Jo-ha-kyû manifests the flow of nature in temporal arts.

There is another principle which is very important in Japanese arts: the ma, which is generally translated as space ; but it is not a physical space but it is more a sensory space, which involves physical space as well as the space of time.  In music, it is felt through the silences between musical phrases or single notes, or through the jo-ha-kyû while playing a single note or a phrase.  In a flower arrangement, it is felt through the arrangement of the different flowers, branches or leafs.  Or, in a Japanese tea room, one might see a beautiful kimono hung on a corner.  The ma is felt not through its physical place in the room, but through what a kimono evokes in one's mind when notices it: the beauty of wearing such a beautiful kimono.  The ma is sensory in relation to what is evoked in a person's mind when experiencing something.

Here are a few brief definitions of basic aesthetic terms:

    Japanese Musical Instruments

The history of music in Japan has been a continuous process of taking in foreign musical styles and digesting or reshaping them to suit Japanese tastes. Examples of this process are seen in the histories of some musical instruments that have come to be considered traditionally Japanese. Among them are the koto (a 13-stringed zitherlike instrument), the shakuhachi (a bamboo flute), and the samisen (a 3-stringed banjolike instrument). The koto was brought to Japan before the sixth century, a primitive type of shakuhachi in the eighth century, and the modern shakuhachi in the thirteenth century, all from China; the samisen was introduced in the sixteenth century from Okinawa. The koto underwent great improvements in Japan, and the shakuhachi disappeared from China while surviving in Japan. New samisen playing techniques were developed with the aid of the bachi, a large plectrum held in the palm of the hand.

Japan has a rich and diverse musical tradition with literally hundreds of musical instruments, but four instruments in particular stand out : the biwa, the koto , the shakuhachi, and the shamisen.  All three appeared in Japanese tradition during the 16th century, and each instrument went through some form of adaptation to suit Japanese musical tastes, evolving differently than their Chinese ancestors, as much in their fabrications, styles and techniques of playing as in their repertoires. 

The Biwa

The biwa is part of the  lute family (Chordophone).  Its true ancestor is the Arabic Ud, which reached China during the time of the Silk Road from Central Asia, during the Han Period (206 BC-220 AD).  It came to Japan during the Nara period (553-794) from China, as well as a smaller and similar lute which came from India.  Like all lutes, thebiwahas a pear-shaped body, with four or five strings and four or more wooden frets.  The strings are plucked with a quite rather large wooden plectrum, called a bachi, which is held in the palm of the right hand.  One of the particular sound characteristics of the Japanese biwa is a buzzing resonance, called sawari or rattle; an effect produced between the strings and the frets.  The strings are made of silk or gut and are thus very elastic.

The biwa comes in different sizes, with different names depending on use.  For example, in Gagaku Court music, the gaku-biwa was used.  It also developed as a solo instrument by the courtiers of the late-Nara (553-794) and Heian (794-1185) periods.  Around that time, blind priests in the south of Japan started to use a smaller biwa, called the moso-biwa, of Indian origin, which felt suited to accompanying the singing of sutras.  At least two other versions of biwa existed at that time.

In the 12th century, the blind-priest biwa players went through a decline, while, at the same time, a narrative tradition was created to recount a famous historical battle between the Heike and the Genji clans, called the Heike Monogatari or The Heike Story.  The biwa created for this new narrative tradition has been called the Heike-biwa.  But when the shamisen came to Japan in the 16th century, the biwa went into a decline.  Yet, some musicians found ways to create new styles to keep the instrument alive up until today.       

Overall, the biwa has been and is still used today to accompany narratives and storytelling.  The patterns played by the singers on biwa are not always melodic, depending on the types of instrument used and the style.  Patterns, melodic, rhythmic or otherwise, are used; in the 19th century, a more melodic accompaniment started to be used.  Previously, the biwa was used as a kind of percussion instrument between the melodic phrases of the singers.  In the 19th century, it came to accompany the singer.  After World War II, some composers tried to modernize it, based on Western ideas, without much success.

Since its introduction, the koto has been the most praised instrument by the Japanese court, the nobility and, later, the rising commercial class.  Similarly to the piano in Western country, the koto has been, and is, played by well-educated girls.

Of Chinese origin, the koto is a table zither, approximately 2 meters long.  It is one of the few musical instruments originally created in China.  There, we find two main forms of this table zither: those with bridges and those without.  The koto is developed from the one with bridges.  Originally, the word koto meant all types of plucked instruments, which included at the beginning the biwa as well.  Later it came to mean the Japanese table zithers.  During the Nara period, there were two instruments of that family: the gaku-so with 12 or 13 strings, and the wagon with 6 strings.  The gaku-so was used in theGagakuensemble and was plucked by three finger plectra, or tsume.  There even existed a nigenkin with 2 strings and an ichigenkin, with one string.  The latter is still played today by a few rare musicians.  There exists today also a 17-stringed basskoto,and other versions with 20, 25 and even 30 strings.

The Koto

The koto is a long necked zither of the Chordophone family of  stringed instruments. Not much is known about the early centuries of koto music, except for some legends that can not be confirmed and several mentions in The Tale of Genji and the Heike Monogatari .  The first official records that have been kept on the koto are from a 16th century school, Tsukushi-goto, founded by a priest.  But that music was considered vulgar , i.e. popular, and was not endorsed by the court.  One student of that school, after being expelled from the school and created his own school which was then endorsed by the court, from which were created three of the best-known and most important pieces of the koto solo repertoire: Rokudan, Hachidan, and Midare.

In the 17th century, the koto started to be used to accompany dances and became part of ensembles.  A new repertoire was created out of the shamisen repertoire.  In fact, it was at that time that the music we call chamber music was created by a musician named Ikuta Kengyo.  Up until then, the koto served as accompaniment for the singer - the same with the shamisen.  The instrumental part became more important.  At the end of 18th century, another musician, Yamada Kengyo, created a new style, also based on narrative shamisen forms, putting an emphasis back on the vocal part.  In the 20th century, attempts were made to modernize koto music based on Western principles.  The two most notable individuals tied to this modernization were Michio Miyagi (1894-1956), and Tadao Sawai (1937-1997).  

The Shakuhachi

The shakuhachi, an end-blown flute of the Aerophone family, came from mainland China with the introduction of Gagaku Court music into Japan.  At that time  the shakuhacki had 6 holes and developed as a solo instrument rather than part of the orchestra. During the 10th century four Chinese monks were invited to the Japanese Imperial Court to teach the xiao, the ancestor of the shakuhachi, to Japanese monks.  During the Edo period (1615-1868), the shakuhachi went through major changes.  Up until that time, it was a thin and long flute, similarly to the Chinese xiao.  In the 17th century, makers started to use a thicker bamboo found in the mountains of Japan's southern island of Kyushu, maintaining its original 5 holes.  Instead of having a straight flute, four rows of roots were used at the bottom of the flute.  The embouchure also became larger.  The name shakuhachi refers to a measure, the shaku, which is approximately a foot long, and hachi is the number 8.  Shakuhachi literally means 'one shaku eight', which came to be used as the generic name for the flute.  The standard 1.8 shakuhachi is in D.  Different lengths are produced, from 1.4 to 3.4, each half a tone apart.

During the Edo period, the new shogun was able to unify the country and finally bring peace after centuries of wars.  Samurai did not have much to do since they could not find any more fighting.  Many became ronin, literally "samurai without masters", and joined the ranks of the wandering monks of the Fuke sect of Buddhists.  These monks, called komuso or "monks of nothingness" , wandered aroudn begging for food as part of their spiritual practice (and playing their shakuhachis) .  While playing the shakuhachi they,,, as tradition dictated, wore a basket on their heads to signify their detachment from worldly matters.  Disguised as komuso, the ronin became spies for the shogun, using their shakuhachi as fighting clubs.  There is a rumour suggesting that the use of a thick bamboo and the four rows of roots to make the shakuhachi is due to these ronin to protect themselves because, as monks, they could not carry their katana (their sword). This style of shakuhachi playng came to be called  honkyoku, meaning "original music", the original style of playing of the Fuke sect monks.  

In the 20th century, the shakuhachi went through some other changes.  At the beginning of the century, a new style of playing was created, called Tozan, a style of playing greatly influenced by Western music.  At the end of the 1950s a seven-hole shakuhachi was created in the hope it could be used to play in a more Western way.  It did not catch on, except for playing folk songs.  Shakuhachi players continue to maintain, up to this day, their preference for the traditional 5-hole instrument.  But one event of importance of the second half of the 20th century is the growing interest by Westerners in learning to play the shakuhachi.  It is estimated that somewhere around 2,000 Westerners are currently learning the shakuhachi and that there are around 300 who have got a master's title, or shi-han.

The Shamisen

The shamisen is a 3-stringed lute with a resonance box covered either with cat or dog skin.  Apparently, it came to Japan around 1562 from Okinawa, called at the time called the Ryukyu Islands.  Like its Chinese ancestor, the Okinawan shamisen is covered with a snake skin and is called jamisen.  It was in use at the Okinawa court.  Because the shamisen came to Japan during the Edo Period (1615-1868), it was the time of a growing merchant class as well as a samurai class that did not have much to do since war was over, except entertain themselves.  It quickly became popular as the best instrument for entertainment.

At the start, people did not find the instrument very interesting.  But when biwa players started to pluck and play it with a biwa bachi (or plectrum), the sound and tone of the instrument were greatly improved, giving the instrument a totally new sound, more pleasing to the Japanese ears.  

The shamisen has no frets.  A number of different effects can be produced, but one most particular characteristic for the shamisen is what is called sawari, similar to the one produced on the biwa.  It is a buzzing sound produced only on the first string.  The first shamisen players were biwa players.  So the first repertoire for the shamisen was narrative music.  But later, because of its growing popularity, to the demise of the biwa, numerous styles and schools of playing were created.  There are two majors styles: katarimono, which refers to narrative singing, while utaimono refers to songs and melodies.  The shamisen came to be used for all types of occasions: theatres, geisha houses, festivals, folk music and much more.  The shamisen quickly became the instrument of choice for many theatre forms, in particular the well-known Kabuki theatre and Bunraku, the Japanese puppet theatre, both of which were created during the Edo period (1615-1868), at the same time of which the shamisen appeared.

   The Historical Development of Japanese Ensemble Music

Archaeologists have traced Japanese ancestry on the islands of Japan to around 3,000 B.C.E.  Yet, the first true records historians can rely on start somewhere around the 4th century AD, at a time when Japanese monks were sent to China to study; bringing back among other things, writing and different spiritual and philosophical teachings, in particular Buddhism and Confucianism, new social views, which were fully embraced by the new government.  The first historic period of importance in Japan is the Nara period (553-794).  The first officially established government tried to impose a social and intellectual order based on the Chinese one.  At that time, Japan society was then based on clans, as it has pretty much been the case until wars finally stopped with the Tokugawa shoguns in the 17th century.

There are many varieties of ensemble performance within Japanese tradition, from the strictly instrumental (Sankyoku) to various forms of theatrical performance (Gagaku, Bunraku, Noh Drama).  The advent of what can perhaps be called chamber music in Japan came late in its musical history.  It is was not until the second half of the 17th century that the idea of putting together different instruments in the form of a small ensemble appeared.  Koto players started accompanying dances used in special ensembles.  It was toward the end of the century that a form of chamber music in the true sense of the term was established, of which the koto was the main instrument.  This ensemble consisted of the koto, the shamisen and the kokyu.  The ensemble was called sankyoku, which means music for three instruments.  Gradually the kokyu was replaced by the shakuhachi and it was in the second half of the 19th century that the kokyu was entirely set aside.  It appears that the biwa was not selected as a possible candidate to be part of this traditional Japanese chamber music. From this time on, the development of Japanese ensemble music has been closely linked to the development of the koto.  

Jiuta-mai music does not have much in common with Western chamber music.  We do not hear three distinct parts, with different melodic lines and a harmony of some sort.  On the contrary, the three instruments play almost exactly the same melodic line, with two exceptions, the vocal parts and the melodic line of the second koto, when a second koto joins the ensemble.  The melodic lines of the shamisen and shakuhachi are based on the koto line and are arranged here and there according to the particularity of both instruments.  Otherwise, it is the same.  The only real ensemble effect that is used is what is called kake-ai, which is a short melodic response between two instruments. The jiuta-mai pieces contains parts alternating between instrumental and vocal parts; sometimes three, sometimes up to six parts.  When a piece is in three parts, there are:

1. a fore song, or maeuta
2. an instrumental interlude or tegoto
3. an after song or atouta

A piece like Chidori no Kyoku, probably the second most popular and well-known piece of the sankyoku repertoire, is divided in five parts.  It starts with an instrumental introduction, followed by a fore song, an interlude in two parts (the parts called nami-nobu and chidoi-nobu), and the after song.

In the 20th century, there appears to have been a decline in the writing of sankyoku pieces.  There has also been a decline in the interest by Japanese themselves and musicians and composers alike regarding their traditional music and instruments.  After World War II, up until the end of the 1960s, not many sankyoku pieces had been written.  We have been seeing seen a renewed interest at the beginning of the 1970s.  What stands out with these 20th century pieces is that the majority of them appear to have been written for koto and shakuhachi.  Yet, some composers have been written pieces which include the shamisen as well as the biwa - as well as writing pieces which include Western instruments.

The situation of traditional music has greatly changed in Japan, due obviously to Western influences.  Although traditional arts remain alive, there has been a decline of interest by young Japanese people, and this, mainly following World War II.  One of the reasons appears to be how long it is takes to become a kabuki actor, for example, or a shakuhachi master.  It is said that many young people would take up traditional arts if the learning period was shortened.  There has been a strong movement of modernization of traditional arts based on Western music, in particular with the koto with such composers as Michio Miyagi and Tadao Sawai.  Some composers are doing the same with the other instruments, performed solo or in chamber music ensemble. Additionally, there is a growing interest by Westerners about in Japanese music.  

Gagaku: Music of the Imperial Court

Gagaku and Bugaku are the court music and dances of Japan. They date back to 703 A.D. and are the oldest traditional performed music and dance in the world. Gagaku is instrumental court music and is often performed alone. Bugaku is the dancing that may accompany the gagaku orchestra. The performances are divided into categories of left and right because of distinct cultural influences. The left, for example, contains Chinese, Indian, and Central Asian elements, while the right has roots in Mongolian and Korean traditions. 

Gagaku is the oldest form of orchestral music in the world. The music is played entirely by memory, giving it a flowing, conversational feeling. Even without reading a score, the rhythms and notes are perfectly executed by the musicians. The gagaku orchestra consists of a wind, string, and percussion section of traditional Japanese instruments. The performances are divided into left music, togaku and right music, komagaku. One of the most well known pieces in the gagaku repertoire is etenraku. The literal translation of etenraku is "music of divinity. " This melody has inspired the creation of some Japanese folk songs as well as having been set for western symphony orchestra. The melody itself consists of three slow phrases that gradually increase in tempo until the piece ends. Gagaku music, although not as popular as other traditional Japanese music, holds a very important place in history.

Bugaku is the court dance of Japan. Back in ancient times, the dances were performed to celebrate many things in the imperial court. Today the dances are performed in the same costumes as back then, but are symbolic rather than functional. The dances were originally literal in their movements, but today they have evolved to become more abstract and use simple geometric patterns. Bugaku, like Gagaku, is divided into two different categories, called the dances of the left, and dances of the right. There are subtle differences between the two. The dance movements of the right tend to be very fluid, while the movements of the left are stronger and have more restrained character. The ideal dance form for the left is described as being "like tinted leaves blown about in a storm on a mountain in autumn." The right is described as being "like a willow waving in the spring breeze." The dances and music were performed in the Japanese Imperial Court for many reasons, including the inthronization of a new emperor, the completion of shrines, and the in-gathering of the first rice. Today the dances and music have changed little in style, but are performed out of respect for the preservation of the past rather than as a necessity. The Japanese monks  that were sent to China to learn different art forms returned to the Japanese Imperial Court with musical instruments and a body of Chinese musical repertoire  that would come to be known as Gagaku, meaning "elegant or refined music".  Gagaku music  entered Japan around 612 and quickly became the privileged music of the court.  Besides being foremost a music of Chinese origin, during the then Tang Dynasty, Gagaku had important influences from Korean as well as Indian music.  When in China, the monks were in fact taught by Chinese and Korean musicians.  Up until around the 10th century the repertoire and the ensemble itself were adapted to suit Japanese taste; and new pieces were even composed.  But since the 10th century, the repertoire as well as the way this music has been performed has remained almost exactly the same.  It is believed that the sound of a Gagaku ensemble and its style of playing are almost the same today as it was a thousand years ago.

The instruments forming aGagaku ensemble at its beginning in the 7th century were of three types: percussion, string and wind.  Among the percussion instruments, we find different sized drums, such as the enormous da-daiko or the ninai-Daiko drums, the design of which is indicative of their Korean origins (a design still kept today).  There are some smaller drums, gongs, cymbals and other smaller instruments.  We find three stringed instruments: the wagon, a 7-stringed table zither, the gaku-so, a 13-stringed table zither, the ancestor of the koto, and the gaku-biwa, a 4-stringed lute.  Among the winds, we find the hichiriki, a short double-reed instrument, with a very distinctive sound, the sho, a mouth organ, as well as three different transverse flutes: the kagura-bue, the koma-bue and the ryuteki.  At the start, the shakuhachi was also part of theGagaku orchestra, but was removed around the 9th century.

The repertoire of Gagaku is divided into two styles, each representing the original country of origin of a particular piece of music. The repertoire and style of Togaku pieces (Music of the Left) came from India or China. When Togaku pieces are performed, all the decor (including clothing) is red in color. Komagaku (Music of the Right) came originally from Korea, Viet Nam, or Manchuria, and is symbolically represented by the color green. This color symbolism can be seen in clothing, dance costumes, flooring and decor. The Togaku and Komagaku traditions are each comprised of three different types of music: Kangen (vocal and instrumental music), Bugaku (dance music), and Western classical and popular pieces used for state occasions. At different times, the Gagaku may be called upon to perform this music in a either a seated, standing, or marching position. Instruments used for marching or standing vary from those used for performances where the ensemble is stationary.

It is perhaps easiest for Westerners to view Gagaku as "Chamber music" (intimate music where each instrument or voice is heard individually, rather than a full orchestra) because of it's transparent sound. Every instrument can be heard individually. There is no notion of Harmony (in the Western sense) in Gagaku, indeed, the music is "aharmonic ", meaning "without harmony". Dynamics and timbre (quality of sound) are valued over the accuracy of tuned pitch. Sometimes, Gagaku music is heterophonic, meaning "variations on the same melody". This variation in sound and tuning may be uncomfortable to the Western ear. During the course of performing a long phrase, two instruments will typically start together ("in tune"), then move away ("out of tune to the Western ear), then come back into "tune". This is true heterophony, and it only exists in a few places in the world. There is one very interesting feature to the notion of rhythm and pacing in Gagaku music. There is no conductor leading the group. The musicians reach a group meditation state, achieving breath rhythm , meaning breathing and pacing the music together as an ensemble". This also describes the connection to chamber music. As individuals, and as a group, there are several mental and physical disciplines involved in performance: Karada: discipline of body required to build physical strength and endurance; Kokoro: discipline of mind and spirit necessary for self control;  Waza: musicianship including a sense of rhythm and lyrical expression. 

These instruments were among the first foreign musical instruments to reach the Japanese shores.  Some of these instruments attracted more the attention and interest of music lovers and took a path distinct from the orchestra while still remaining part of it in one way or another (more specifically, the gaku-so, the gaku-biwa and many percussion instruments), while others have been used, up until today, only inGagakuorchestra (more specifically, the sho, the hichiriki and a few of the percussions).  As for the shakuhachi; after having been removed from the orchestra, it did not attract anyone's attention for at least another 200 years.  The traditional music and dance of the Imperial Court of Japan have enjoyed a long history in Japanese culture. Since World War II, interest in Gagaku has diminished. Many of the musicians were drafted to fight and did not return afterward. Today's generation is less interested in dedicating their lives to gagaku. Other Japanese traditional arts, such as kabuki are more popular. Gagaku is still used in Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. Although it has lost popularity, it remains an important part of the rich culture of modern Japan.

Musical/Theatrical Genres

The music of Japan is very diverse, with longstanding traditions in classical, folk, and popular music genres. Of the classical genres, we in the West are most familiar with Kabuki Theater, the Noh Drama, Bunraku (Puppet Theater), or Shomyo chanting. (Buddhist singing) as well as solo instrumental music of the Koto, the Shakuhachi, or the Shamisen. Today I'm going to introduce you to the oldest Court Music tradition in the world: Gagaku (Ga=elegant or refined, gaku=music; combined to mean "elegant music"). Gagaku has continental (mainland Asia) roots in the ancient ensembles of China and Korea, but tradition has been more intermittent in both countries. Together the Japanese Gagaku and Korean Aak ensemble traditions are the oldest "continuous" music ensemble in the world, dating back to 453 A.D., when a Korean ensemble of 80 musicians and dancers came to Japan to participate in an imperial funeral. The group stayed, forming the basis for a court ensemble tradition that would emerge as Gagaku.

Bunraku

   Bunraku Puppeteer

Traditional Japanese puppet theater is known as Bunraku, a name derived from Oosaka's (Osaka's) Bunraku-za theater.  The earliest forms of bunraku appeared in the Muromachi period, it was in the Edo period that it became popular in Kyouto (Kyoto) and Oosaka. Bunraku demands close cooperation among the ballad-reciting chanter, the shamisen accompanist, and the three operators required for each puppet. Bunraku puppets measure 1-1.5 meters high and can weigh up to 10 kg. Each of the three operators is responsible for different parts--the principal operator for the head, torso, and right hand, the first assistant for the left hand, and the second assistant for the feet--and all have devoted many years to their art of bringing the puppets to life. While dolls for female characters do not usually have feet, the hems of the kimono are moved to give the illusion of feet. Even though the puppets have little facial expression, the operators manage to make them weep, lagh, and get angry very realistically. Onstage, the operators are inconspicously clothed in black.

The greatest Bunraku playwright was Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who wrote such classics as Kokusen'ya Kassen (Battles of Coxinga), Sonezaki Shinjuu (Love Suicides at Sonezaki), and Shinjuu Ten no Amijima (Love Suicides at Amijima). Modern audiences find that many of these plays still possess dramatic power and themes--romantic love, the star-crossed lovers' suicide, and war--that transcend time. Even through these are "puppet plays", there is nothing childish about them. Bunraku has been designated an Important Intangible Cultural Asset, and several bunraku artists have been named Living Cultural Treasures.

Kabuki Theatre

Kabuki is one of Japan's leading forms of classical drama, featuring all-male casts performing elaborate librettos over music provided by shamisen, flutes and drums with singing styles called nagauta, tokiwazu and kiyomoto. Kabuki traditionally claims its origins in the dance of the actress Izumo no Okuni, in Kyoto in 1603, and soon became popular throughout Japan, appealing mainly to commoners, townsmen and merchants (the three rather humiliating social classifications of the masses). The Tokugawa government frequently imposed restrictions on Kabuki, believing it encouraged esthetic extravagance and moral decadence. An early official prohibition against actresses appearing on the Kabuki stage resulted in one of the theater's most striking features, the onnagata, actors who train meticulously to play female roles. By the mid-17th century, Kabuki had evolved into a sophisticated art form, drawing on the traditions of the older Noh theater and the classical puppet stage, with innovations such as the revolving stage, the hanamichi, a processional platform, and trapdoors, all a part of today's Kabuki theater., registered in official documents as heimin, chonin, and shonin.

Kabuki's main themes include both tales of war and court life and everyday psychological conflicts that the townspeople can identify with.  Kabuki is an actor's theater, and the actor's skill is all. Many foreign observers have been drawn to Kabuki for its women's roles gracefully performed by male onna-gata in conformity with kabuki's longstanding tradition of banning women from the stage. Bandou Tamasaburou, for example, the most popular onna-gata in Kabuki today, has also been lionized overseas. Kabuki nmes are generally hereditary, and actors' children undergo rigorous training from a very early age.

Every Kabuki actor has a yagou, called out by appreciative members of the audience when he cuts an especially striking figure. Some of the most famous yaou are Naritaya (Ichikawa Danjuurou), Kouraiya (Matsumoto Koushirou), Narikomaya (nakamura Utaemon), and Otowaya (Onoe Kikugorou). Another unique feature of kabuki is the hana-michi, a long passageway running directly through the audience at the left of center stage, and having principal actors make their entrances and exits along the hana-michi helps to kraw the audience into the performance itself.

As a theatrical genre, Kabuki dates back to the early seventeenth century when Okuni, a maiden consecrated to lzumo Shrine in Shimane Prefecture, created and performed original dances and led a troupe of her own. But the government banned first women and then young boys from perform-ing kabuki. After around 1652, therefore, kabuki devel-oped as a theatrical art performed by adult males alone, giving rise to the institution of oyama or onnagata male actors who specialize in female roles.

Kabuki was extremely popular with the general public in the Edo period, and its content and style mirror the manners and customs of that time. Although kabuki entered a phase of decadence and decline around the end of the Edo period and the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912), some of the leading actors of the day spearheaded a revivalist movement that led to the creation of a number of new works, mostly dance dramas inspired by noh themes. Some of these plays have won a lasting place in the repertoire.

The three Japanese characters (Calligraphy )for kabuki separately refer to "dance, music, and craft or skill". Originally however, kabuki was written with different characters which meant "tilted" or out of "balance", the implication being something that might be considered exotic, racy or debauched. In fact the early history of kabuki had more in common with vaudeville and burlesque than its origin in temple dance implies.  Kabuki, adhering to traditional forms, continues to enjoy steady popularity today. lchikawa Ennosuke first appeared in "Yamatotakerur" in February 1986,"Oguri" in April 1991,and "Kaguya" in April 1996. Dubbed "super-kabuki," these works have proved tremendously popular and are becoming a core element of new-style kabuki. Bunraku is a highly sophisticated form of puppet theater featuring large puppets (each manipulated by three men), narrators (tayu), and samisen musicians.

Noh Drama

No (also Noh or Nou) is a type of masked dance-drama in which extreme stylization of the actors' movements and the narrative music evoke a beautiful, mysterious atmosphere. The only script for a Noh play is a song book called an utai-bon with narrative chants and songs sung by a chorus to the accompaniment of flutes, large and small hand drums, and, at times, a large drum.  The performers are defined by their roles. These are the shite principal actor, the waki subordinate actor, the kyougen comic actor, and the chorus and musicians, none of which are interchangeable. The principal actor directs not only his own performance in the leading role, but also that of his companion, the tsure, and the singing of the chorus. In the same way the waki or subordinate actor oversees his own role and that of his tsure.The kyougen actor will sometimes provide a brief explanation of events between acts, and he performs in humorous sketches, also called Kyougen, which provide comic relief between plays. Music plays an important role throughout, for the muscians and chorus are as vital to a nou performance as the actors. Masks may sometimes be worn by the shite and the kyougen actors, but never by the waki. Noh plays, traditionally a form of samurai's entertainment, first became popular in Kanazawa in the era of Tsunanori (1643-1724), fifth feudal lord of the Maeda family. With the wealth of the Kaga province to support it, an exquisite and refined style of Noh, which came to be known as Kaga Hosho, developed in Kanazawa. Noh in Kanazawa was traditionally enjoyed, not only by aristocrats, but by average citizens as well. There were performances as part of religious ceremonies, performances given by civil servants, and Noh chants were even used as texts for educating children.

Noh drama was perfected in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by Kan'ami and his son Zeami, who refined the rustic mimetic art known as sarugaku. Noh received a great impetus under the patronage of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (shogun from 1368 to 1394). In the Edo period ( 1603-1868) the Tokugawa shogunate authorized five schools of noh for the entertainment of the samurai class. Noh is a highly stylized form of dance drama in which the main actor, who is usually masked, dances to the accompaniment of chanting and instrumental music.

The Noh Theatre

Noh Drama Stage

                                                              Diagram of Noh Stage

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