Ch. 16 Dr. Prinsky's Snake-Oil Grammar

All the following material about grammar and punctuation can be, and should be, looked up in sections throughout the composition handbook. (Use the composition handbook's index, Glossary of usage and grammatical terms, and table of contents. Asterisked terms in the following chapter should be looked up in the composition handbook and a collegiate dictionary.) This chapter, "Dr. Prinsky's Snake-Oil Grammar," attempts to put all this material together, and to further explain and illustrate it.

Grammar seemed so mysterious to people outside of education in ages past--and seems so to some people today, in as well as out of school--that it was associated with black magic. Thus, the word glamour, with its overtones of a supernatural aura, has the surprising etymology (which you can check in your collegiate dictionary) of being derived, with a letter-change through slurring of the r, from the word grammar. (The word grammar itself merely derives from the Greek gramma, meaning "letter" of the alphabet.) To very few people nowadays, with the exception of your English teacher, does grammar appear glamorous in the modern sense of the latter word; for too many people nowadays does grammar still seem associated with black magic.

But grammar isn't derived from black magic, as incomprehensible as it seems to those who didn't get a strong dose of it, like castor oil or a vaccination, sometime between elementary school and high school. Grammar arose, with language itself, to communicate meaning and information. It wasn't invented by academics but rather by the users of the language; its purpose was to structure the language in order to communicate meaning and information. All scholars did, after language users had evolved words and grammar, was to outline the system that had been evolved. While academics compiled dictionaries outlining the vocabulary of a language, the users were the ones who evolved the words in the first place.

The parts-of-speech grammar familiar, to a lesser or greater extent, to some people today is only one of several English grammars, and is in some ways not the most precise according to principles of modern linguistics. However, it is the grammar used by most composition handbooks, including the one for this course, and it is the basis for describing many rights or wrongs in formal writing. The system that will be presented is somewhat oversimplified and has some legerdemain in it (hence my title "Snake-Oil Grammar"), but it should prove serviceable. Some writers who persistently compose sentence fragments, comma splices, or run-ons (fused sentences) and cannot spot these in their own writing will need the grammatical check: a sentence fragment is either a phrase or subordinate clause punctuated with a period; a comma splice is two main clauses with no conjunction between them punctuated with a comma instead of a semicolon; a run-on (fused sentence) is two main clauses with no conjunction or any mark of punctuation between them.

Sometimes fragment-writers have been given a semantic test to check for fragments, but still have difficulty spotting the fragments, because the semantic test can be dubious; the grammar test, on the contrary, is infallible. Thus, when the fragment-writer is told that a fragment "doesn't make complete sense by itself," he or she has trouble seeing that the fragment doesn't make complete sense by itself. Furthermore, some legitimate main clauses, which can legitimately be punctuated as stand-alone sentences don't, in fact, seem to make complete sense by themselves. An example would be the following:

Yet it did.

Nearly all apprentice writers polled about whether this word group is a legitimate sentence or a sentence fragment would identify it as a sentence fragment if using the semantic test. This word group doesn't, in some ways, seem to make sense on its own; after all, what does the yet refer to, or the it, or the did? But the grammatical test is the infallible one: any main clause can be punctuated with a period and be a legitimate sentence. The above example is a main clause (for reasons explained later in this chapter) and thus is a legitimate sentence, not a sentence fragment. (The word group yet it did begins with a coordinate conjunction, has a subject, it, and has a predicate or verb, did; consequently, it is a main clause and may be punctuated with a period as a complete sentence.)

The material that follows will give an outline of the grammatical system (parts-of-speech grammar), with tips about what errors or mistakes are associated with certain components of the system, as well as how these errors may be recognized and repaired. If you have not had any background in grammar, now is the time to establish your foundation. Make flash cards by purchasing a pack of 3 X 5 cards and cutting each card in half. Next, put each term on a separate card, with the definition on the back. Next, do a new set of cards: write a phrase or sentence on a separate card, with a word or group of words underlined; on the back, put what grammatical component the word or group of words represents. Two sets of cards are needed: one for definitions, and one for developing the ability to recognize the grammatical component as it occurs. Such flash cards, incidentally, are available commercially and can be purchased, but are expensive; a pack of 3 X 5 cards costs less than a dollar, and your writing out the information on the cards will constitute extra studying. Carry the cards with you, and when you have some dead time, as when standing in line at the grocery store or bank (your line, of course, will be the slowest), then pull out the flash cards and go over some of them. As you become more familiar with the terms, mix the cards up in order to further test your ability to define and recognize.

Nearly the whole grammatical system may be laid out in the following diagram or chart, with each set of components becoming the building blocks of the next set of components. Asterisked items should be looked up in the Glossary of the composition handbook and your collegiate dictionary:

Parts of Speech Word Groups Elements of the Clause Kinds of Clauses Kinds of Sentences

noun*
pronoun*
verb*
adverb*
adjective* (& article*)
preposition*
conjunction*
coordinate*
(= FANBOYS)
subordinate*
(= not FANBOYS)
interjection

phrase*
(Can't have both subject and predicate)

clause*
(Has both subject and predicate)
0 (nothing) or introducing conjunction
subject* (noun or noun-substitute, plus phrase[s])

predicate* (verb plus modifier[s] or phrase[s])

complement* (direct object, predicate adjective, predicate noun, plus phrase[s])
main*
(Introduced by 0/nothing or FANBOYS)

subordinate*
(Introduced by subordinate conjunction - any conjunction except FANBOYS)
simple*
(one main clause)

compound*
(two or more main clauses)

complex*
(one main and one or more subordinate clause)

compound-complex*
(two or more main clauses, plus one or more subordinate clause)

The parts of speech are the building blocks of any group of related words, which must either be a phrase or a clause; all clauses are either main (introduced by nothing, or by one of the seven coordinate conjunctions: FANBOYS -- For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) or subordinate (introduced by a subordinate conjunction, which is a conjunction, any of about thirty-five or more, other than FANBOYS); and specified combinations of the kinds of clauses make up the four kinds of sentences. Other than the verbals* (infinitives*, participles*, gerunds*), this one paragraph and the above chart cover nearly the whole grammatical system.

Any group of related words is either a phrase or a clause; there are no exceptions. A phrase can't have both a subject and a predicate: there can be subject phrases, predicate phrases, or phrases without either subject or predicate: prepositional phrases, participial phrases, and infinitive phrases. Phrases are important components of clauses but are not clauses; when punctuated by a period, phrases become one of the main sources of sentence fragments:

(a) A friend of mine from Los Angeles. Is a professor of history.

[The first word group is a subject phrase: it lacks a verb or predicate, and thus is a fragment. The second word group is a predicate or verb phrase; it lacks a subject, and thus is a fragment.]

(b) Most students can learn grammar. With enough effort.

[The second word group is a prepositional phrase; it lacks either a subject or predicate; punctuated with a period, it becomes a sentence fragment.]

[The second word group is a participial phrase; it lacks either a subject or predicate; punctuated with a period, it becomes a sentence fragment.]

(d) Some students haven't fully made up their minds. To commit themselves to studying.

[The second word group is an infinitive phrase; it lacks either a subject or predicate; punctuated with a period, it becomes a sentence fragment.]

In most instances, as shown above, the remedy for the sentence fragment is to join the word group to the clause or sentence that immediately precedes it.

The terms main clause and subordinate clause are preferable to the equally correct terms independent clause and dependent clause because the term subordinate clause is a key reminder that what causes a subordinate clause to be subordinate is the subordinate conjunction. The following three variations show how the introducing conjunction (including the null introducing conjunction--that is, the lack of a conjunction) determines whether the clause is a main clause or a subordinate clause:

(a) Norm studied

(b) So Norm studied

Two of these word groups can be punctuated with a period and stand as a complete sentence: (a) and (b). (a) is a clause because it has a subject, Norm, and a predicate (the verb at the clause level), studied; it is a main clause because it is introduced by 0, zero, nothing. (b) is a clause for the same reason as (a), and it is a main clause because it is introduced by one of the FANBOYS. However, (c) is a subordinate clause, because it is introduced by a subordinate conjunction, when; there is no w in FANBOYS, so when isn't one of the coordinate conjunctions; it is a conjunction, so it must be a subordinate conjunction. Punctuating (c) with a period would create one of the two kinds of sentence fragment: a subordinate clause with a period.

How about the following word groups?:

(d) Although Norm studied

(e) As Norm studied

(f) Because Norm studied

(g) But Norm studied

(h) If Norm studied

(i) Until Norm studied

(j) While Norm studied

Norm must be fairly intelligent with all this studying (no wonder he wears eyeglasses)! (d), (e), (f), (g), (h), (i), and (j) all begin with conjunctions; are these coordinate or subordinate conjunctions? (d), (e), (f), (h), (i), and (j) are all subordinate conjunctions (although, as, because, if, until, and while aren't in FANBOYS), which means that the clause (subject = Norm, predicate = studied) is a subordinate clause; hence none can be punctuated with a period without creating a sentence fragment. (g), however, begins with one of the FANBOYS, the coordinate conjunctions, creating a main clause, which may be punctuated with a period and will not create a sentence fragment. Incidentally, beginning a sentence with one of the coordinate conjunctions is quite acceptable; good writers (as you will note from examples in the composition handbook and in the essay anthology) do it all the time, for the reason explained in the composition handbook under the subject transitional words and expressions; coordinate conjunctions, make fine transition words (though the conjunction and should not be overused) since their grammatical function is to link things--hence they do a good job of linking the sentence they begin with the preceding sentence (whether in the same paragraph or the preceding paragraph). Be sure to look up transition and paragraph coherence in the composition handbook index and find the list of transition words and phrases provided in the handbook, which will include, among others, the coordinate conjunctions (FANBOYS).

More about Sentence Fragments

One last kind of sentence fragment that some writers succumb to is the appositive* sentence fragment--either the phrase or the subordinate clause (the only two general kinds of sentence fragments):

(a) Two novelists Norm especially liked because of their vocabulary were Thomas Berger and Anthony Burgess. Two brilliant contemporary prose stylists.

(b) From his reading, Norm learned the word callipygian. One that made him swoon.

(c) Because he learned so many interesting words from his reading, Norm liked to use them. Some of which could have gotten him into trouble.

The second word group in (a), (b), and (c) is a sentence fragment. (a) is an appositive phrase: it lacks both subject and predicate (verb) -- in fact, it doesn't have either one. (b) and (c) are appositive subordinate clauses; only main clauses (or main clauses that are joined by a conjunction or comma to a subordinate clause) can be punctuated with a period. A subordinate clause with a period is a sentence fragment. (b) has the conjunction that, which is the conjunction that technically is supposed to join this clause to the preceding word one or to the preceding main clause ("From his reading, Norm learned the word callipygian, one that made him swoon"). And that must be a subordinate conjunction because there is no t in FANBOYS; so the grammar is "One" plus the subordinate clause "that made him swoon"; all together, the word group is a subordinate clause and would be a sentence fragment punctuated with a period. (c) illustrates the danger of the "of which" or "of whom" or "of whose" construction in creating sentence fragments. In these constructions, the which or whom or whose is a conjunction; its job is to join this clause to a word or clause that precedes it. What kind of conjunction is which, whom, or whose? It must be a subordinate conjunction, since there is no w in FANBOYS. Therefore this word group is a subordinate clause, and may not be punctuated, by itself, with a period, without creating a sentence fragment.

Grammar and Comma Splices

Grammatically, a comma splice occurs when two main clauses are not joined by FANBOYS and only spliced with a comma--hence the name "comma splice." The following exemplifies one kind of comma splice:

S.J. Perelman is one of my favorite humorous writers , he has a phenomenal vocabulary.

"S.J. Perelman is one of my favorite humorous writers" is a main clause (0 + subject [S.J. Perelman] + predicate, including predicate noun [is one of my favorite humorous writers]); "he has a phenomenal vocabulary" is a main clause (0 + subject [he] + predicate, including direct object [has a phenomenal vocabulary]); therefore, a comma between these two main clauses creates a comma splice.

Often an adverb, and sometimes a special adverb called the "conjunctive adverb," will create the comma splice. Some adverbs, including conjunctive adverbs, look like conjunctions, but aren't. The rule is that two main clauses with no conjunction between them and punctuated with a comma create the comma splice. The following sentences all contain either adverbs or conjunctive adverbs, not conjunctions, and so create comma splices when just the comma is used between the main clauses:

(a) Sometimes S.J. Perelman uses arcane polysyllabic words like apotheosis , however at other times he uses slang words like sawbuck.

(b) Perelman is unabashed about his Jewish heritage , consequently he uses Yiddish words like schmendrick and shmotta along with slang.

(c) Language is the main tool of the trade of literary humorists and standup comedians , therefore most of them are very sensitive to it and its use.

(d) Many humorists notice something odd about society's use of a word or phrase , then they work their observation into an essay or a routine.

In each of these instances--(a), (b), (c), and (d)--the fastest fix would be to change the comma to a semicolon. One of the two main jobs of the semicolon is for main clauses with no conjunction between them.

Grammar and Comma Splices: How to Recognize an Adverb or Conjunctive Adverb; How to Differentiate an Adverb or a Conjunctive Adverb from a Conjunction

The comma splice can only occur between main clauses not joined by FANBOYS. If a regular subordinate conjunction is used to join the two clauses, a comma splice does not occur, since what is created is a complex sentence. Comma splices may only occur in compound sentences not joined by FANBOYS: two or more main clauses not joined by FANBOYS.

The test to differentiate a conjunction from an adverb or conjunctive adverb is threefold. A conjunction (1) comes between the clauses, (2) joins them, and (3) can't be easily moved around within its clause. The subordinate conjunction although is analogous to the conjunctive adverb however, but although, unlike however, can't be comfortably moved around in its own clause.

In the following examples, the first item is a comma splice, an error:

(a1) Most students deny liking poetry , however they listen to it in popular song lyrics all the time.

(a2) Most students deny liking poetry , although they listen to it in popular song lyrics all the time.

[however can easily be moved around in its own clause, but although can't be]

(b1) Norm is curious about most things , consequently he has books in most subject areas.

(b2) Norm is curious about most things , so he has books in most subject areas.

(b3) Norm has books in most subject areas since he's curious about most things.

[consequently can easily be moved around in its own clause, but so and since can't be in their clauses]

[(b3) should not have a comma between areas and since for reasons explained later in this chapter, relating to restrictive and nonrestrictive sentence material.]

(c1) S.J. Perelman and Anthony Burgess appreciated good prose style , therefore they idolized British author James Joyce.

(c2) S.J. Perelman and Anthony Burgess appreciated good prose style , so they idolized British author James Joyce.

(c3) S.J. Perelman and Anthony Burgess idolized British author James Joyce because they appreciated good prose style.

[therefore can easily be moved around in its own clause, but so and because can't be in their clauses]

[(c3) should not have a comma between Joyce and because for reasons explained later in this chapter, relating to restrictive and nonrestrictive sentence material.]

[again, the fastest fix for (a1), (b1), and (c1), which are all comma splices, is to change the comma to a semicolon]

How to Fix Comma Splices: Punctuation

One option of fixing comma splices given in composition handbooks, to separate the two clauses into two shorter sentences, is usually undesirable. Students do, in fact, usually have a good sense of what material belongs in the same sentence. The other options explained in composition handbooks--supplying a subordinate conjunction where appropriate, supplying a coordinate conjunction where appropriate, and changing the comma to a semicolon--are all serviceable. Unaccountably, composition handbooks in the chapter on comma splices rarely tell students that the colon is also a fix for some comma splices, and they fail in the chapter on the colon to cross reference the use of the colon between two main clauses to the chapter on comma splices. When the second main clause amplifies or explains the preceding main clause, and no adverb or conjunctive adverb comes between the two clauses, often the colon should be used, even more appropriately than the semicolon. If you can imagine a because or therefore or rather or for example between the two main clauses, then often the colon (which you should look up in your composition handbook) will be appropriate:

NOT: (a1) I like the novels of Max Shulman , they make me laugh.

RATHER: (a2) I like the novels of Max Shulman : they make me laugh.

Probably about one in five or six comma splices ought to be fixed by the use of the colon, as explained above.

For impromptu or extemporary writing, clearly the fastest fix is to change the comma to a semicolon: all one has to do is add a dot on top of the comma. (Did you notice my use of the colon in the preceding sentence?) Often this fix is best, also, because it most closely adheres to the writer's original wording and sentence sense. For writing that may be done over more than one class session, sometimes the conjunctive adverb should be added along with a preceding semicolon, or sometimes the appropriate subordinate or coordinate conjunction should be added to main clauses with nothing between them except a comma (providing that the colon isn't the most appropriate fix, for reasons indicated above). Again, most students should avoid separating the two main clauses into two short sentences; the possibility is listed in composition handbooks but in contradiction to most students writing sentences that are too short and exercises in the composition handbooks designed to get students to write longer, more complex sentences. For comma splices, don't separate the two clauses into short sentences, but do consider (a) semicolon, (b) appropriate coordinate conjunction, in the right place, (c) appropriate subordinate conjunction, in the right places, or (d) the colon.

NOT: (a1) The word bathykolpian used by Anthony Burgess in his science fiction novel The Wanting Seed was so erudite that Norm couldn't find it in any of his collegiate dictionaries , he had to look it up in the huge unabridged Oxford English Dictionary.

RATHER: (a2) The word bathykolpian used by Anthony Burgess in his science fiction novel The Wanting Seed was so erudite that Norm couldn't find it in any of his collegiate dictionaries ; instead , he had to look it up in the huge unabridged Oxford English Dictionary.

[The above example shows that a comma splice can occur between a compound sentence--a main clause with a subordinate clause attached to it--and a main clause. The pattern for this type of comma splice looks like the following:

main clause + subordinate clause , main clause

In the above example, the main clause is 0/no conjunction + word (subject) + was (predicate/verb) + that (subordinate conjunction: no t in FANBOYS) + Norm (subject) + could find (predicate/verb) + comma [ERROR: comma splice] + 0/no conjunction + he (subject) + had to look (predicate/verb). The repair is the same as with other comma splices: semicolon, colon, or addition of appropriate conjunction.]

Be careful not to fall into the trap of always putting a semicolon in front of the conjunctive adverbs like however and therefore, regardless of their use in a sentence or clause. In the following instances, the use of a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb would be incorrect, because the conjunctive adverb isn't being used between two clauses but rather as a connective that indicates a relationship with a whole preceding sentence.

NOT (a1) Many students claim they don't like poetry. They do ; however , listen to it all the time in the form of popular song lyrics.

RATHER (a2) Many students claim they don't like poetry. They do , however , listen to it all the time in the form of popular song lyrics.

[Notice that the however could also be placed before the first word of the second sentence--"However, they do listen to it all the time in the form of popular song lyrics"--and it could also be placed as the last word of the sentence: "They do listen to it all the time in the form of popular song lyrics, however."]

NOT (b1) Norm has been a drummer since fourteen. Therefore ; he had to become good at analyzing symbolism in literature.

NOT (b2) Norm has been a drummer since fourteen. He had ; therefore , to become good at analyzing symbolism in literature.

NOT (b3) Norm has been a drummer since fourteen. He had to become good at analyzing symbolism in literature ; therefore.

RATHER (b1) Norm has been a drummer since fourteen. Therefore , he had to become good at analyzing symbolism in literature.

RATHER (b2) Norm has been a drummer since fourteen. He had , therefore , to become good at analyzing symbolism in literature.

RATHER (b3) Norm has been a drummer since fourteen. He had to become good at analyzing symbolism in literature , therefore.

Punctuating the Conjunctive Adverb When It Comes in a Clause Following a Preceding Clause

When a conjunctive adverb is used in a clause following a preceding clause, its status of not really belonging in any one place in its own clause is shown by keeping it separate from the rest of its clause with one comma or two commas, depending on the exact position of the conjunctive adverb. The following examples illustrate the placement and punctuation of conjunctive adverbs in compound sentences (two main clauses):

(a1) The Bible is serious literature ; however , it has humorous touches in many passages.

(a2) The Bible is serious literature ; it has , however , humorous touches in many passages.

(a3) The Bible is serious literature ; it has humorous touches in many passages , however.

The pattern is as follows:

(a1) main clause ; conjunctive adverb , --------------- .

(a2) main clause ; ------------- , conjunctive adverb , ----- .

(a3) main clause ; ---------------------- , conjunctive adverb .

(a1), (a2), and (a3) show how the conjunctive adverb is always fenced off from the clause it occurs in, to show its peculiar status of not belonging in one special place in the clause. Rather, it can be positioned at the beginning of its clause, middle of its clause, and end of its clause. (Did you notice the punctuation of Rather at the beginning of the preceding sentence?)

Grammar and Punctuation: Commas

Since modern times, the punctuation system, particularly in American English, has been based on grammar. The reasons to use the period, comma, dash, semicolon, and colon are primarily grammatical.

Five Main Uses of the Comma

1. Series of items: X , Y , and Z .

2. Main clauses joined by FANBOYS: ---------- , FANBOYS ------- .

Be careful to put the comma before FANBOYS, not after: as shown in the immediately preceding example. If a sentence begins with FANBOYS, do not put a comma immediately after the FANBOYS conjunction (NOT: "But , he remained a friend of mine." RATHER: "But he remained a friend of mine.")

3. Introductory material and transitional words or phrases within the clause:

(a1) introductory prepositional phrase ,
(a2) introductory conjunctive adverb , (Therefore , -- ) or introductory transitional expression
(For example , )

(b1) introductory verbal (participial or infinitive) phrase ,
(b2) introductory absolute , ("His face red, Norm apologized")

(d) transitional word or phrase within the clause ,

Examples:

(a1) With that in mind , ----
(a2) In contrast , ---

(b1a) Driving over the bumpy road , -----
(b1b) Dressed in his best suit , ----
(b1c) To be blunt , ---------
(b2) Her feet hurting , Janice sat down

(d) Norm , too , had his off days. He recovered , though , when he thought about his books.

4. Nonrestrictive phrase or clause. A phrase or clause is restrictive (takes NO comma) if (a) one item out of a group is being pointed out (e.g. "My friend Jones just got a great job"; "Melville's novel Moby Dick tells a whale of a good story") or (b) the action in the first clause happens if and only if the action happens in the second clause (I'll go if you go -- versus: I'll go , though I don't want to). The comma is pushed away to point to something restrictive -- that is, that does a or b.

5. Miscellaneous (for the thousand's place in numbers, as in 1,000; between city and state: Augusta, Georgia; and so on)

Why X , Y , and Z Rather Than X , Y and Z

Most composition handbooks point out that the comma before the last item in a series is optional; but the composition handbooks also go on to point out, correctly, that confusion very easily can result from not using this last comma, and that this comma is recommended. The reason that this comma should always be used before the last item in the series with commas is that without the comma, the last two items in the series look like part of their own set:

(a) X , Y , and Z - clearly looks like three different items

(b) X , Y and Z - could easily be mistaken for two items rather than three: X is item 1, while Y and Z are compound parts of item 2

NOT: I like apples , oranges and grapes. [Could be misread as the author saying he or she likes oranges and grapes together as a set, with apples as a different item: obviously someone from California]

RATHER: I like apples , oranges , and grapes. [A regular person, not a Californian.]

Why Main Clauses connected with FANBOYS Should Always Have the Comma

Virtually all composition handbooks explain that occasionally a comma is optional between main clauses connected by FANBOYS. The problem is that frequently such a comma is not optional and failure to use it is a mistake. Logical advice to apprentice writers who have not done a great deal of reading of high quality nonfiction prose is to routinely use the comma between main clauses connected by FANBOYS and therefore ensure avoiding the times when failure to use the comma is a mistake. The pattern, then, is

main clause , FANBOYS main clause

The same situation applies to introductory prepositional phrases. Sometimes the comma is optional; often not using it is an error. Therefore, always using the comma for an introductory prepositional phrase is best for all but very experienced writers.

Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive When Deciding About the Comma

The fourth main use of the comma is for nonrestrictive words, phrases, and clauses. When words (usually adjectives or adverbs), phrases, or clauses are restrictive, they in effect push any comma out of the way, they cancel the comma, to point to something, in a sense restricting this something.

The two main situations in which the question of whether material is restrictive or nonrestrictive (if a word, phrase, or clause is nonrestrictive, then it does require a comma) are (a) whether one item is being pointed out of a group (in mathematical terms, does the set have one item, or more than one item), and (b) whether the action happens in the first clause if and only if the action happens in the second clause. (Further, and different, explanation of restrictive and nonrestrictive will be found in your composition handbook.)

Case a occurs, for instance, whenever a title of a literary work, film, musical composition, or name of a person is mentioned. If an essay refers to Melville's novel Moby Dick, for example, should commas be used or not used in the following:

(a1) Melville's novel Moby Dick tells a whale of a good story.

(a2) Melville's most famous novel Moby Dick has been made into more than one American feature film.

In case a1, the novel's title is restrictive, since Melville wrote several novels, and our set has multiple items (the several novels of Herman Melville). Consequently, we imagine pushing a comma out of the way, cancelling any comma, to point to this particular title. The sentence in a1 is punctuated as it should be.

In case a2, the novel's title is nonrestrictive, since Melville can only have written one most famous novel (by definition, most famous can only mean one). Here, our set has only one item. The title after the words "most famous novel" is nonrestrictive, and hence takes commas. Thus the title of the novel should be bracketed by commas in a2. Example a2 should read as follows:

(a2) Melville's most famous novel , Moby Dick , has been made into more than one American feature film.

Whether the nonrestrictive material takes one comma or two commas is analogous to whether the conjunctive adverb takes one or two commas: placement in the sentence or clause decides this question. In the following sentence, the nonrestrictive material gets only one comma because it is placed at the end of the sentence:

Even many English majors have not read Herman Melville's wonderful first novel , Typee.

However, in the following sentence, the title would be bracketed by two commas because of the non-restrictive setup of "first novel" (there can only be one of these) and the placement of the nonrestrictive item in the middle of the sentence, rather than at the end:

Herman Melville's first novel , Typee , is set in the South Seas.

Many times inexperienced writers or ill-trained journalists have turned people into bigamists by faulty handling of the restrictive-nonrestrictive question:

(b1) Harry's wife Lorraine just got her Ph.D. in sociology.

This sentence makes Harry into a bigamist; by not bracketing Lorraine with commas, the correct use of punctuation indicates that Harry has more than one wife, and it is this wife, not the other one or other ones, who received her Ph.D. in sociology. (We need to notify the Sheriff's department about Harry, and a good attorney on behalf of Lorraine.) Provided that Harry isn't actually a lawbreaker, the sentence should read, with punctuation used correctly:

(b2) Harry's wife , Lorraine , just got her Ph.D. in sociology.

Almost always, added-on participial phrases (phrases beginning with an -ing word), which show good sentence structure, make sentences more economical, and give good additional detail or support, are nonrestrictive:

(b3) If students will truly pay attention to their reading in college , they will expand their vocabulary , adding scores of new words from their textbooks in English, social science, and biology.

[The -ing construction in italics, added either to the beginning or ending of a sentence, is nonrestrictive--it doesn't change whether one item is pointed out of a group--and thus requires a comma]

At the clause level, this question of restrictive or nonrestrictive, of comma(s) or no comma(s), occurs when an adjective clause or relative clause (kinds of subordinate clause) follows or is embedded in a main clause. The following sentences illustrate main clauses followed by adjective clauses or relative clauses that are nonrestrictive (do not point one item out of a group), and consequently require the comma:

(c1) One of Norm's favorite terms and concepts from sociology was cognitive dissonance , which explains why followers of questionable groups hang on after major disappointments.

(c2) Another of Norm's favorite modern novelists is Mario Vargas Llosa , whose humorous novels often deal with a romantic relationship developing between a young man and his cousin or aunt.

In the following sentences, the material following the subordinate conjunction is, indeed, restrictive, consequently requiring that no comma separate it from what precedes:

(d1) There are many fine books that have been written to help people build their vocabularies.

[The sentence isn't talking about all categories of books but points out one particular category: vocabulary-building books.]

(d2) Did you mean Tom Jones who is the titular character of Henry Fielding's famous novel or Tom Jones who is the famous Welsh pop singer?

[Usually, mention of a person's name means that the material following is nonrestrictive, but here there is a question about pointing one out of a group--a group of Tom Joneses!--and hence no comma should be used.]

The second major case of restrictive versus nonrestrictive material occurs whenever an adverb clause (a kind of subordinate clause) follows a main clause, which is a very frequent occurrence in English. The test of whether the adverb clause following the main clause is restrictive (no comma) or nonrestrictive (comma) is does the action in the first clause happen if and only if the action happens in the second clause? The modification of action is one of the principal functions of adverbs: one of their main jobs is to modify, limit, or describe the verb. The same is true of adverb clauses: they modify, limit, or describe the verb in the preceding clause. In the following pair of sentences, one of them requires no comma (restrictive: the action in the first clause happens if and only if the action happens in the second clause), while the other requires the comma (nonrestrictive: the action in the first clause happens whether or not the action happens in the second clause):

(e1) I'll go though I don't want to.

(e2) I'll go if you go.

(e1) is the sentence requiring the comma because the action in the first clause, the going, will happen whether or not we know about how the doer of the action feels about going. In contrast, (e2) requires the absence of the comma because the action in the first clause, the going, will happen if and only if the action happens in the second clause (the associated going of the other person). Thus the correct punctuation of (e1) is as follows:

(e1) I'll go , though I don't want to.

Commas Used Incorrectly

When students start learning about commas, they sometimes hypercorrect and use too many. The advice about using a comma where the writer or speaker would naturally pause is poor: the grammatical system, not speech-making, is the basis of the punctuation system. Use commas only for one of the five reasons given above, or do not use them. Like semicolons, commas shouldn't be used "just for the heck of it."

One main misuse of commas is the erroneous separation of two parts of a single grammatical unit. Commas should not be used so that they separate the subject from the predicate in a clause; they should not separate the predicate (or verb) from the complement (predicate noun, predicate adjective, or direct object) in a clause.

NOT (a1) Professor Prinsky , has written many nonfiction articles of both movie criticism and literary criticism.

[erroneous separation of subject from predicate]

NOT (a2) Professor Prinsky recorded , a 45 r.p.m. rock record in Southern California in the 1960's.

[erroneous separation of predicate from complement (in this case, direct object)]

NOT (a2) Professor Prinsky has received , royalties from his rock record when it appeared on three CD's in the late 1990's: Pebbles, Vol. 8: Southern California 1, The Cicadelic 60's (Vol. 8), and Nuggets (a four-CD set chosen by Spin and Rolling Stone magazines as one of the best CD compilation sets of 1998).

[erroneous separation of predicate from complement]

NOT (a3) But , Professor Prinsky often prefers reading as much as other activities.

[Note: do not use a comma immediately after FANBOYS; these are conjunctions, not conjunctive adverbs. Conjunctive adverbs require being separated from the clause they appear in; in contrast, true conjunctions--like the FANBOYS--should not be separated from the clause in which they appear.]

The other main misuse of commas is erroneous use of them for restrictive material--usually in reference to titles of films, records, articles, books, literary works--when the comma should be suppressed or cancelled because one item out of a group is being pointed out. See the discussion of restrictive and nonrestrictive material, above, in this chapter.

Grammar and Punctuation: Semicolon

The semicolon has two main uses: (1) between main clauses not joined by FANBOYS, and (2) between items in a sentence (including main clauses) that already in themselves contain commas. Otherwise, do not use it.

(a1) Norm's blue sparkle Gretch drum kit is a classic ; he used it in the making of his 45 r.p.m. rock record with The Rumors.

[main clauses not joined by FANBOYS]

(a2) Professor Prinsky has written articles for the Columbia News , a weekly newspaper ; Hampton's Guide to Pre-Recorded Video , a national monthly magazine ; and several series of Masterplots II , literary reference sets carried in most college and university libraries .

[items in a sentence that already in themselves contain commas]

(a3) Professor Prinsky enjoys writing , especially if he can inject humor into his articles ; and he finds the task less onerous ever since the advent of wordprocessing.

[a comma in the first main clause-subordinate clause combination of the sentence means that a semicolon should be used before the FANBOYS of the second main clause rather than a comma]